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02_Different Cultural Models Flashcards

1
Q

Definition
Cultural Models

Fyberg & Markus, 2007

A

Cultural models consist of ideas and habits, which are derived from culture and are present in everyday life

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2
Q

5 Cultural Models
and # of cultural Dimensions

A
  1. Hofstede [1970?80/2010]: 6 Dimensions
  2. Hall&Hall [1976/90]: 4 Dimensions
  3. Trompenaars [1993]: 7 Dimensions
  4. Schwartz [1994]: 3 Dimensions
  5. Globe Study [2004]: 9 Dimensions
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3
Q

Cultural Dimensions
Definition

A
  • show similarities and differences between national cultures
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4
Q

Hofstede’s
Cultural Model

6 Dimensions to distinguish culture

A
  1. Power Distance [PDI]
  2. Uncertainty Avoidance [UAI]
  3. Indivualism vs. Collectivism [IDV]
  4. Masculinity vs. Femininity [MAS]
  5. Long vs. Short term orientation [LTO]
  6. Indulgence vs. Restraint [IND]
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5
Q

Hofstede’s Approach
Cultural Model

A
  • measuring of work-related values
  • surveyed over 116.000 employees of IBM in many countries
  • identification of 4 cultural dimensions) in 1980 [power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity]
  • amendment of a 5th dimension [long-term orientation] in 1991
  • amendment of 6th dimension [indulgence] in 2010
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6
Q

Power Distance
Hofstede’s 1st cultural dimension

Simple Definition

A
  • examines the extent to which a culture accepts unequal power distribution.
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7
Q

Cultures with Lower Power distance…

A
  • power differences in institutions and organizations are not tolerated and not accepted
  • low income equality
  • larger middle class, smaller lower class
  • use of power is legitimate
  • systems change by evolution
  • **younger (business) executives **
  • spontaneous innovations
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8
Q

Cultures with High Power Distnace

A
  • power differences in institutions and organizations are tolerated and accepted
  • high income inequality
  • smaller middle class, larger lower class
  • oligarchy
  • revolution to change system
  • older (business) executives
  • innovations only when supported by hiearchy
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9
Q

Uncertainty Avoidance
Hofstede’s 2nd cultural dimension

Simple Definition

A
  • can be defined as the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations
  • shows to what extent unclear and ambiguous situations create feelings of insecurity and anxiety in a culture [Layes 2010]
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10
Q

Cultures with strong Uncertainty avoidance

A
  • rules to regulate private and public life are binding
  • unclear circumstances lead to disorientation
  • uncertainty is avoided
  • more stress and anxiety
  • feeling of “what is different is dangerous’
  • a need for rules
  • low adoptance of innovations
  • people tend to stay in the same jobs
  • less tolerance towards people whoch are different to oneself
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11
Q

Cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance

A
  • rules to regulate private and public life are not binding
  • unclear or chaotic circumsatnces are handled quite easily
  • uncertainty is normal
  • less stress and anxiety
  • feeling of “what is different is curious”
  • don’t like rules
  • faster adoptance of innovations
  • change of job is easier done
  • more tolerance twoards people who are different to oneself
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12
Q

Individualism
Hofstede’s 3rd cultural dimension

Simple definition

A
  • shows the extent the members of a culture define themselves as part of a social network and how commiteted they are to this network [Layes 2010]
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13
Q

Members of individualistic cultures

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

A
  • perceive themselves as autonomous individuals
  • personal goals must not be aligned and reached in accordance with the group
  • e.g. US, Australia, UK, Netherlands, Canada
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14
Q

Members of Collectivist cultures

Hofstede’s 3rd cultural dimension

A
  • perceive themselves as members of a group, relationship-oriented
  • personal goals should be aligned and reached in accordance with the group
  • e.g. Ecuador, Venezuela, Pakistan, Indonesia, China
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15
Q

Masculinity
Hofstede’s 4th cultural dimensions

Simple Definition

A
  • shows the extent gender roles are delineated and predefined [Layes 2010]
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16
Q

Masculine cultures…

A
  • preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success
  • society at large is more competitive
  • gender roles clearly defined
  • e.g. Japan, Austria, Italy, Venezuela
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17
Q

Feminine cultures

Hofstede’s cultural dimension

A
  • preference in society for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life
  • society at large is more consensus-oriented
  • both, men and women, can assume almost all roles in society
  • gender roles are not limited to clearly defined characteristics
  • e.g. Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, Angola
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18
Q

How is the Masculinity Index measured

A
  • 100 for most masculine
  • 0 for most feminine
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19
Q

Long-Term Orientation
Hofstede’s 5th cultural dimension

Simple Definition

A
  • shows to what extent long-term thinking is valued [Layes 2010]
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20
Q

Long-Term oriented cultures..

Hofstede’s 5th cultural dimension

A
  • present influenced by long-standing traditions
  • today’s actions are binding for the future
  • stable and binding social structures over generations
  • e.g. South Korea, Japan, Chinea, Germany
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21
Q

Short-Term oriented cultures

Hofstede’s 5th cultural dimension

A
  • traditions have nostalgic value
  • social change easily mobilized
  • unstable and non-commercial social conditions
  • e.g. Egypt, Ghana, Iran, Morocco, Nigeria
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22
Q

Indulgence
Hofstede’s 6th cultural dimension

Simple Definition

A
  • tendency to allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun
  • its opposite pole, restraint reflects a conviction that such gratification needs to be curbed and regulated by strict social norms
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23
Q

Critiques of Hofstede model

3 items

A
  1. Appropriateness of the Sample
    - conducted at 1 company (IBM)
    - employees may not be representative sample of general population
  2. Labeling of Terms
    - Hofstede studied business cultures and manager’s attitudes
    - insight may not shed light on core societal culture and values that are prevalent in given society or on a society’s behaviour patterns
  3. Other Biases
    - survey based on questionnare and scales that were developed for western societies
    - terms used in questionnaire may not be exactly translated accross culture (may have entirely different meanings in other cultures)
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24
Q

Hall’s approach to study cultural dimensions

2 items

A
  • identification of fundamental dimensions of human co-existence which are relevant to all cultures
  • identification of 4 cultural dimension
  • Context, space, time, information flow in 1985 and 1990
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25
Q

Hall’s 4 Dimension model

4 items to distinguish types of cultures

A

1. Context: Low context vs. high context
2. Space: Low personal distance vs. High personal distance
3. Time: Monochronic time vs. Polychronic time
4. Information FLow: Low information flow vs. high information flow

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26
Q

Context
Hall’s 1st cultural dimension

Simple definition

A

Context

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27
Q

Low context cultures

Hall’s 1st cultural dimension

A

Explicit manner to transmit a message

  • most of the information is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message
  • very little of the information is in the person who transmitters the message
  • low non-linguistic context (explicit information transfer with as little space for interpretation as possible)
  • separate personal relationships, work and other aspects of day-to day life
  • need detailed background infromation

e.g. US, Central and North European cultures

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28
Q

High Context Cultures

Halls 1st cultural dimension

A

Implicit manner to transmit a message
- most of the information is in the person who transmitters the message
- high non-linguistic ocntext (e.g. suing nonverbal signs, metaphors)
- very little of the information is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message
- have extensive information networks among family, friends ,colleagues and lcients
- do not need detailed background information

e.g. Asian, Arabian, Mediterranea cultures

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29
Q

Hall’s 2nd cultural dimension

A

Space

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30
Q

Hall’s 2nd cultural dimension
Space
Definitiont

Layes (2020)

A
  • concept of space, for instance, applies to cultural differenes in terms of personal distance and the way in which it is automatically applied in interactions with friends or business partners

Depending on culture, people determine their intimate personal, social and public spae differently

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31
Q

Low Personal Distance Cultures

Hall’s 2nd cultural dimension

A

smaller bubbles of personal space
- peopl of low personal distance cultures do not keep their distance as people of high personal distance cultures do
- people of high personal distance cultures perceive a distance as intimate while people of low personal distance cultures perceive the same distnace as normal conversational distance

e.g. Southern, France, Italy, Greece, Spain

32
Q

High Personal distance cultures

Hall’s 2nd cultlural dimension

A
  • quite large bubbles of personal space
  • people keep their distance, one does not touch others
  • apologies if a personunintentionally brushes another one

e.g. Northern Europe, Americans of norther Europe ancestry

33
Q

Hall’s 3rd cultural dimensions

A

Time

34
Q

Monochronic People

Hall’s 3rd cultural dimensions

A
  • do one thing at a time
  • concetrate on the job
  • take time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously

-are low-context and need information
- are committed to the job

  • adhere religiously to plans
  • are concerened about not disturbing others, follow rules of privacy and consideration
  • show great respect for private property
  • seldom borrow or lend
  • emphasize promptness
  • are accustomed to short-term relationships
35
Q

Polychronic People

Hall’s 3rd cultural dimension Time

A
  • do many things at once
  • are highly distractible and subject to interruprtions
  • consider time commitments and objective to be achieved, if possible
  • are high-context and already have information
  • are committed to people and human relationships
  • chance plans often and easily
  • are more concerned with those who are closely related (family, friends, close business associates) than with privacy
  • borrow and lend things often and easily
  • base promptness on the relationships
  • have strong tendency to build lifetime relationships
36
Q

Hall’s 4th Cultural Dimension

A

Information Flow

37
Q

Information Flow
Definition

Hall’s 4th cultural dimensions

A
  • how long it takes a message inteded to produce an action to travel from one part of an organization to another
  • and for that message to release the desired response
38
Q

Low information flow

Hall’s 4th cultural dimension

A
  • typical for low-context countries
  • information is highly focused, compartmentalized & controlled
  • information does not flow freely
  • lower level of interpersonal contact
  • information is used for command and control
  • power struggles or jealousies between executives can lead to a deliberate blocking of information

e.g. USA, Germany, Switzerland

39
Q

High Information Flow Cultures

Hall’s 4th cultural dimension

A
  • typical for high-context countries
  • information spreads rapidly and on its own
  • information flows freely due to a high level of interpersonal contact
  • people tend to stay in touch and keep up to date with each other
  • people are confronted with a wealth of information

e.g. France, Spain, Japan

40
Q

Fons Trompenaar’s
7 dimensions of national cultural differences

A
  1. Universalism vs. Particularism
  2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism
  3. Neutral vs. Affective
  4. Specific vs. Difffuse
  5. Achievement vs. Ascription
  6. People-Nature Orientation
  7. Temporal Orientation

1-5: Interaction of human beings with others
6: relationships of human beings to nature/environment
7: Relationship of human beings to time

41
Q

Universalism vs. Particularism

Trompenaar’s 1st cultural dimensions

A

Rules vs Relationships
- extent to what universally valid laws and regulations prevail in universalistic societies
- regulations are written for everyone and must be upheld, even enforced, in a culture to structrure human co-existence
- in contrast, individuals in particularistic societies are more focused on the nature of a given circumstance and are reluctant to follow strict and predetermined rules

42
Q

Characteristics of
Universalistic cultures

Trompenaar’s 1st cultural dimensions

A
  • focus is more on rules than on relationships
  • legal contracts are readily drawn up
  • a trustworth person is one who honors his or her word of contra t
  • there is olny one truth or reality, which has been agreed to
  • a deal is a deal

US, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland

43
Q

Characteristics of Particularistic Cultures

Trompenaar’s 1st cultural dimension

A
  • focus is more on relationship than on rules
  • legal contracts are readily modified
  • a trustworthy person is one who honors changing mutuality
  • there are several perspectives on reality relative to eahc participant
  • relationships evolve

e.g. China, Indonesia, South Korea

44
Q

Individualism vs. Communitarianism
Definition

Trompenaars 2nd Cultural Dimension

A
  • Individual vs. the groupe
  • individualist culture sees the individual as the end and improvements to communal arrangements as the means to achieve it
  • communitarian culture see the group as its ends and improvements to individual capacities as a means to that end
45
Q

Characteristics of
Individualist Cultures

Trompenaars 2nd Cultural dimensions

A
  • more frequent use of the “I” form
  • decisions are made on the spot by representatives
  • people ideally achieve alone and assume personal responsibility
  • vacations are taken in pairs, even alone
  • quick decision making and sudden offers which are not neceessarily referred to the HQ of the company when doing business
  • the aim is to make a quick deal when doing business

USA, Germany, Scandinavia, Netherlands

46
Q

Characteristics of
Communitarian Cultures

Trompenaars 2nd cultural dimension

A
  • more frequent use of the we form
  • decisions are referred back t by delegate to the organization
  • people ideally achieve in groups, which assume joint responsibility
  • vacations are taken in organized groups or with the extended family
  • decision making takes time as communitarian business practice emphasizes consensus and consultation
  • the aim is to build lasting relationships when doing business

e.g. China, France, Japan, South Korea

47
Q

Definition of
Neutral / Affective

Trompenaars 3rd cultural dimension

A

degree to which feelings are expressed
- Members of cultures that are affectively neutral do not telegraph their feelings but instead keep them carefully controlled and subdued.
- high in affectivity people show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling, grimacing, scowling, and gesturing; they attempt to find immediate outlets for their feelings

48
Q

Characteristics of
Neutral Cultures

Trompenaars 3rd dimension of culture

A
  • people do not reveal what they are thinking or feeling
  • tension may (accidentally) be revealed in the face and posture
  • emotions often damned up will occasionally explode
  • cool and self-possessed conduct is admired
  • if you are doing business with members of neutral cultures, negotiations are typically focused on the object or proposition being discussed, not so much on you personally

e.g. Japan, Poland, Austria, China, New Zealand, Sweden

49
Q

Characteristics of
Affective Cultures

Trompenaars 3rd cultural

A
  • people reveal thoughs and feelings verablly and nonverablly
  • transparency and expressiveness release tension
  • emotions flow easily, effusively, vehemently, and without inhibition
  • heated, vital, animated expression are admired

if you are doing business with members of affective cultures, negotiations are typically focused on you personally, not so much on th eobject or porposition being discussed

e.g. Egypt, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Philippines, Russia

50
Q

Specific vs. Diffuse
Definition

Trompenaars 4th cultural dimension

A

Degree of involvement

  • Doing business with a culture more diffuse than our own feels excessively time consuming.
  • Some nations refuse to do business in a mental subdivision called ‘‘commerce‘‘ or ‘‘work‘‘ that is kept apart from the rest of life. In diffuse cultures, everything is connected to everything.
  • Your business partner may wish to know where you went to school, who your friends are, and what you think of life, politics, art, literature, and music. This is not a waste of time, because such preferences reveal character and form friendships. They also make deception nearly impossible.‘‘
51
Q

Characteristics and business behaviour of
Specific Cultures

Trompenaars 4th cultural dimension

A
  • relationships are direct, to the point and purposeful
  • people are precise, blunt, definitive and transparent
  • principles and consistent morality stand independent of the person being addressed

Business Behaviour
- quick, to the point, efficient
- strucutred meetings with agendas
- titles or skills of business partners which are irrelevant to the issue being discussed should not be used or acknowledged
- confrontations are part of ht ebusiness, they are not personal
- private and business agendas are kept separate from each other

e.g. Sweden, netheralds, UK, Germany, Switzerland, US

52
Q

Characteristics and Business Behaviour of
Diffuse Cultures

Trompenaar’s 4th cultural dimension

A
  • forms or relating are indirect circuitous, and seemingly “aimless”
  • people are evasive, tactful, ambiguous and even opaque
  • morality is highly situational and depends on the person and context encountered

Business Behaviour
- take time, disgressions are accepted
- meetings flow
- titles, age and background connections of business partners should always be respected, whatever issuesis being discussed
- indirect and circuitous behaviour instead of confrontations
- private and business isues interpenetrate
-

e.g. China, Japan, Venzuela (South America)

53
Q

Definition
Achievement / Ascription

Trompenaars 5th cultural dimension

A

How status is accorded

  • All societies give certain of their members higher status than others, signaling that unusual attention should be focused on such people and their activities.
  • While some societies accord status to people on the basis of their achievements, others ascribe it to them by virtue of age, class, gender, education, and so on.
  • The first kind of status is called achieved status and the second ascribed status. While achieved status refers to doing, ascribed status refers to being
54
Q

Characteristics and Business Behaviour of
Achievement Cultures

Trompenaars 5th cutural dimension

A
  • use of titles only when relevant to the competence the person brings to the task
  • Respect for superiors in the hierarchy is based on how effectively they perform their jobs and how adequate their expertise is
  • most senior managers are of varying age and gender and have shown proficiencye in specific jobs

Business Behaviour
- negotiation team should have enough data, technical advisers and knowledeable people to convince the other company that the project, jointly purseud, will work
- showing resepeect twoards the business counterparts and their expertise

e.g. UK, US

55
Q

Characteristics and Business Behaviour of Ascriptive cultures

Trompenaars 5th cultural dimension

A
  • Extensive use of titles, especially when thy clarify the person’s status in the organization
  • Respect for superiors in the hierarchy is seen as a measure of people’s commitment to the organization and its mission
  • Most senior managers are male, middle-aged, and qualified by their background

Business Behaviour
- negoation team should consist of enough older, senior officials as well as others with formal titles
- respecting the status and influence of the business counterpart

e.g. Japan, South Korea

56
Q

Definition of People Nature Orientation

Trompenaar’s 6th cultural dimension

A

How we relate to nature

  • Societies that conduct business have developed two major orientations toward nature.
  • They either believe that they can and should control nature by imposing their will on it, as in the ancient biblical injunction ‘‘Multiply and subdue the earth,‘‘
  • or they believe that humans are part of nature and must go along with its laws, directions and forces.
  • The first of these orientations we shall describe as inner-directed. This kind of culture tends to identify with mechanisms; that is, the organization is conceived of as a machine that obeys the will of its operators.
  • The second, the outer-directed, tends to see an organization as itself a product of nature, owing its development to the nutrients in its environment and to a favorable ecological balance.
57
Q

Temporal Orientation
Definition

Trompenaar’s 7th cultural dimenions

A

how we manage time
- differences about the past, the present and the future
- sequential time versus synchronic time
- time horizon (= duration of time thinking)
- clock time vs. event time

58
Q

Focus on present and future
cultural differences

Trompenaar’s 7 cultural dimension

A
  • US genearlly starts from 0
  • what matters in their present performance and their plan to make it in the future

Note
- there are also cultures which focus mainly on the present or on the future

59
Q

Focus on Past

Trompenaar’s 7 cultural dimensions

A
  • the Frenche have an enormous sense of the past and relatively less focus on the present and future (ancien pauvre)
60
Q

Temporal Orientation
2 major Items

Trompenaar’s 7th cultural dimension

A
  • Past, present, future
  • sequential vs. synchronic
61
Q

Sequential vs synchronic time

Trompenaar’s 7th cultural dimension

A

Sequential Time
- time is conceived of as a line of sequential events passing us at regular intervals

Synchronic time
- time is conceived of as cyclical and repetitive, compressing past, present and future by what they have in common: season and rhythms

62
Q

Schwartz Theory of Basic Values

Shalom H. Schwartz

A

7 basic cultural value orientations
3 cultural value dimensions

63
Q

Schwarty Theory of Basic Values
7 basic cultural value orientations

A

1. Harmony: unity with nature, world at peace
2. Emebeddedness: social order, obedience, respect for tradition
3. Hierarchy: authority, humble
4. Mastery: Ambition, daring
5. Affective Autonomy: Pleasure
6. Intellectual autonomy: broadminedness, curiosity
7. Egalitarianism: Social justice, equality

64
Q
  1. Autonomy vs Embeddedness

Schwartz Theory of Basic values

A

1st issue: nature of relation or boundaries between person and group

Autonomy
- people are viewed as autonomous, bounded entities
- They should cultivate and
express their own preferences, feelings, ideas, and abilities, and find meaning in their own uniqueness.

2 types of autonomy:
- Intellectual autonomy encourages individuals to pursue their own ideas and intellectual directions independently. Examples of important values in such cultures include broadmindedness, curiosity, and creativity.
- Affective autonomy encourages individuals to pursue affectively positive experience for themselves. Important values include pleasure, exciting life, and varied life.

embeddedness
- people are viewed as entities embedded in the collectivity
- Meaning in life comes largely through social relationships, through identifying with the group, participating in its shared way of life, and striving toward its shared goals
- Embedded cultures emphasize maintaining the status quo and restraining actions that might disrupt in-group solidarity or the traditional order. **Important values **in such cultures are social order, respect for tradition, security, obedience, and wisdom.

65
Q
  1. Hierarchy vs Egalitarianism

Schwartz Theory of Basic Values

A

2nd issue: guarantee that people behave in responsible manner that preserves social fabriv

Egalitarianism

  • recognize one another as
    moral equals who share basic interests as human beings.
    People are socialized to internalize a commitment to cooperate and to feel concern for everyone’s welfare.
    They are expected to act for the benefit of others as a matter of choice.
  • Important values in such cultures include equality, social justice, responsibility, help, and honesty

cultural hierarchy
- relies on hierarchical systems of ascribed roles to insure responsible, productive behavior.
- It defines the unequal distribution of power, roles, and resources as legitimate
- People are socialized to take the hierarchical distribution of roles for granted and to comply with the obligations and rules attached to their roles
- Values like social power, authority, humility, and wealth are highly important in hierarchical cultures.

66
Q
  1. Harmony vs. Mastery

Schwartz Theory of Basic values

A

3rd issue: regulate how people manage relations to natural and social world

Harmony
- emphasizes fitting into the world as it is
- values such as world at peace, unity with nature, protecting the environment

Mastery
- encourages active self-assertion in order to master direct, and change natural and social environment to attain group or personal goals
- values such as ambition, success, daring and competence are especially important in mastery cultures

67
Q

The GLOBE Study

A
  • international study of cultural, leaderhip and organization practices
  • study identified 9 dimensions of culture in 2004
  • within this research program, up to now 3 sureys (2004, 2007, 2014) on managers worldwide where conducted
68
Q

9 dimensions of culture

GLOBE Study

A
  1. Performance Orientation
  2. Assertiveness
  3. Future Orientation
  4. Humane Orientation
  5. Institutional Collectivism
  6. In-Group Collectivism
69
Q

Performance Orientation

GLOBE Study

A
  • degree to which collective encourages and rewards (and should encourage and reward) group members for performance improvement and excellence
70
Q

Assertiveness

GLOBE Study

A
  • degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in their relationship with others
71
Q

Future Orientation

GLOBE Study

A
  • extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviours such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying gratification
72
Q

Humane Orientation

GLOBE Study

A
  • degree to which collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistics, generous, caring and kind to others
73
Q

Instituational Collectivism

GLOBE Study

A
  • degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices **encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action **
74
Q

In Groupe Collectivism

GLOBE Study

A
  • degree to which individuals express pride loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families
75
Q

Power Distance

GLOBE Study

A
  • extent to which community accepts and endorses authority, power differences and status privileges
76
Q

Uncertainty Avoidance

GLOBE Study

A
  • The extent to which a society, organization, or group relies (and should rely) on social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events.
  • The greater the desire to avoid uncertainty, the more people seek orderliness, consistency, structure, formal procedures, and laws to cover situations in their daily lives.
77
Q

WVS (World Values Survey)

A
  • largest non-commercial, cross-national, time series investigation of human beliefs and values ever executed, currently including interview with almost 400,000 respondents
  • started in 1981
  • almost 90% of world’s population, conducting surveys in almost 100 countries

international experience (13 decks)

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