21. Neuroplasticity & Neural Basis of Motor Learning

Question 1

neuroplasticity

Answer 1

the ability of neurons to alter their function, amounts and types of neurotransmitters produced, and/or structure
-involved in memory and learning

Question 2

mechanisms of neuroplasticity

Answer 2

habituation/sensitizaton

experience-dependent plasticity: learning/memory

recovery or maladaptation after injury

Question 3

learning

Answer 3

change in behavior that results from acquiring knowledge and practice
- process of acquisition

Question 4

memory

Answer 4

the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored, and later recalled/retrieved
-the product of learning and acquisition

Question 5

Motor learning vs performance

Answer 5

Learning- relatively permanent change

Performance- temporary change observed during practice

Question 6

what type of memory is closely related to the learning process?

Answer 6

long term memory

Question 7

2 forms of long term memory

Answer 7

nondeclarative (implicit)

declarative (explicit)

Question 8

3 types of learning involved with nondeclarative/implicit memory

Answer 8

non-associative
associative
procedural

Question 9

non-associative learning

Answer 9

occurs when an animal is given a single stimulus repeatedly → nervous system learns about the characteristics of that stimulus

habituation/sensitizatoin

Question 10

Habituation is a simple form of neuroplasticity where you have learned ____________

Answer 10

supression of non-noxious stimuli

↓ Decrease in response to a repeated, benign stimulus over time

Question 11

Habituation is due to decreased synaptic activity between….

Answer 11

Sensory neurons and interneurons/motor neurons

Question 12

Short term habituation is due to ________ changes

-reduction of neurotransmitter

-less Ca2

Answer 12

presynaptic

Question 13

Longterm habituation is due to ________ changes and structural changes

Answer 13

post synaptic

Question 14

Sensitization is caused by strenghtening the response to a stimuli that is _________________

Answer 14

preceded by a noxious stimuli

↑ Increase in response to a repeated or strong stimulu

Question 15

T or F. Sensitization is a more complex process than habituation

Answer 15

T

Question 16

Habituation can be due to altered _______ conductance or facilitating more neuro transmitter release

Answer 16

K+

Question 17

In long term sensitization there are changes in:

Answer 17

Altered strength of existing synapses

synthesis of new proteins

modification of synapses

Question 18

associative learning

Answer 18

when a person learns to predict relationships
-classical and operant conditioning

Question 19

Classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

Answer 19

classical- 1 stimulus to another

Operant- behavior to consequences

Question 20

Long term association causes new protein synthesis with formation of….

Answer 20

new synapses between the neurons

Question 21

Classical conditioning example

Answer 21

dog hears bell and gets food

bell -> dog salivates

note: timing between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned response has to be fast.

Question 22

operant conditioning

Answer 22

trial and error learning
reinforcement/punishment

Question 23

Trial and error learning requires close ___________ due to simular neuro processes as classical conditioning

Answer 23

temporal association

Note: Trial and error learning is behavior shaped by internal thoughts and motivation

Question 24

procedural learning

Answer 24

learning tasks that can be performed automatically without attention or conscious thought → implicit knowledge

Question 25

For implicit procedural learning the movement must be ___________ by the learner through trial and error and _____________

Answer 25

Performed within the context of the skills and in typical environment

Question 26

procedural learning occurs in specific areas of the....

Answer 26

frontal & parietal cortices, basal ganglia, and cerbellum

Question 27

**implicit procedural** learning definition

Answer 27

Learning and execution of **motor** and **nondeclarative** cognitive tasks, especially w/ **sequences** example: skills and habits

Question 28

Declarative learning requires conscious processing with end product of...

Answer 28

Acquiring knowledge that can be expressed **explicitly/consciously**

Question 29

What parts of the brain are responsible for explicit learning? Prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus ___________, ________, ____________

Answer 29

Caudate **Medial temporal lobes** hippocampus

Question 30

people with lesions to ___________ have difficulty remembering factual knowledge

Answer 30

bilateral medial temporal lobe

Question 31

What is longterm potentiation (LTP)?

Answer 31

when weak and strong input arrive at the same time at the post synaptic dendrite, and the **weak one will be facilitated** due to association with the stronger stimulus → **increase synaptic strength** *similar to sensitization*

Question 32

**long term potentiation** (LTP) requires the firing of both ________ and ___________ cells at the same time

Answer 32

pre and post synaptic

Question 33

Short term potentiation has ___________ only whereas long term potentiation causes _____________

Answer 33

functional changes only protein synthesis for structural changes

Question 34

long term depression

Answer 34

active synapse changes to silent/weak synapse by removal of post-synaptic receptors into cytoplasm → decrease synaptic strength (helpful for chronic pain)

Question 35

Long term depression is similar to ________ long term potentiation is similar to ______________-

Answer 35

habituation sensitization

Question 36

LTP and LTD of which areas of the brain are Important for spatial memory and memories that can be verbalized

Answer 36

hippocampus temporal lobe

Question 37

What is associativity?

Answer 37

When **contributing fibers** and **post synaptic cells** work together to give a **stronger** input (weak input becomes stronger due to traveling the same route as a stronger input) REPETITIONS

Question 38

What is cooperativity?

Answer 38

Requires > 1 neuron working together all the neurons working together converge on the same synapse and combine their inputs to become stronger.

Question 39

**Specificity**: Only synapses that are __________ will exhibit long term potentiation Example:_____________

Answer 39

highly active Selective memory

Question 40

When learning a new task, many brain areas are active, with repetition......

Answer 40

fewer areas are active becoming more streamlined as the skill developed

Question 41

T or F, myelin also demonstrates experience dependent neuroplasticity

Answer 41

True

Question 42

Enhanced motor skill development seen in patients after _______

Answer 42

sleep

Question 43

______ memory and _____ memory overlap and are used in most learning activities

Answer 43

implicit and explicit note: implicit and explicit memories can shift to the other kind

Question 44

**Motor learning**: Practice can increase activity of _______, which can activate the motor cortex, bypassing the somatosensory cortex ________ are developed aiding in **efficiency** and **redundancy** (especially important for case of injury)

Answer 44

thalamocortical pathways parallel pathways

Question 45

Stages of motor learning _________ -> ___________ -> _____________

Answer 45

cognitive -> associative -> autonomous Note: as you progress the level of attention required goes down

Question 46

cognitive phase

Answer 46

learner is concerned with understanding the nature of the task and developing strategies that could be used to carry out the task

Question 47

In the **early cognitive phase** of motor learning, you're reliant on ______________ from motor preformance, many errors, rapid improvment

Answer 47

sensory feedback

Question 48

Early cognitive phases experience an _________ and then a _____ in *dorsolateral prefronal cortex, sensorimotor cortices, parietal areas, and cerebellum* activity

Answer 48

increase decrease

Question 49

When do you have larger improvements? Cognitive phase or associative phase?

Answer 49

cognitive phase associative phase - slower improvements

Question 50

associative phase

Answer 50

Trial and error period trying new strategies refining skills preformance less variable

Question 51

**Associative phase**: __________ are less active than initial stage increase in activity in the ____________ Less motor planning and executive functioning needed

Answer 51

motor and sensory areas dentate, thalamus, putamen

Question 52

autonomous phase

Answer 52

Minimal attention required stable preformance error detection present increased accuracy, smoothness, and speed

Question 53

During the **autonomous** stage the ________ remains active but ________ decrease activity

Answer 53

primary motor cortex cortical association areas

Question 54

What areas increase in activity as a task becomes more automatic?

Answer 54

Basal ganglia Thalamus Cerebellar Nuclei

Question 55

Healthy older adults are able to acheive new automatic motor skills but require....

Answer 55

significantly more practice than younger adults

Question 56

Patterns of brain activities are simular in older and younger adults during skill acquisition. But Older adults need ____________ to attain simular levels of automaticity

Answer 56

significantly more brain activity

Question 57

Aging can impact ______ capabilities since harder/longer time to reach automaticity

Answer 57

Dual Task

Question 58

Most brain damage comes from __________, than the intial acute injury

Answer 58

excitotoxicity

Question 59

What is excitotoxicity

Answer 59

excessive **glutamate** released from hypoxic cells that **destroys** post-synaptic neurons

Question 60

During excitotoxicity, glutamate binds to receptors and increases intracellular _______, this causes more _____ to exit the cell. Due to this, more glycolysis is required to give sufficient energy -> more lactic acid -> acidosis -> breaks down cell

Answer 60

CA+ K+

Question 61

(excitotoxicity) Heightened glycolysis in cells causes excess _________ which reduces intracellular pH causing acidosis which breaks down the cell membrane

Answer 61

lactic acid

Question 62

(excitotoxicity) CA+ stimulates protein enzymes that release _______, and make oxygen free radicals along with excessive NO, causing more cell damage

Answer 62

arachodonic acid note: also water influx ocurs causing cellular edema

Question 63

Right after axon is severed in an injury ______ leaks out of both ends and segments retract away from eachother

Answer 63

cytoplasm

Question 64

Distal segments of an axon (when severed), start ____________ process with axon degeneration and myelin sheath pulling away from axon

Answer 64

wallerian degeneration

Question 65

What kind of cells clean up an axonal injury?

Answer 65

**Glial cells** clean up area of axonal injury

Question 66

During axonal injury, associated cell body degenerates through central ___________

Answer 66

**Chromatolysis** which may lead to cell death note: Post synaptic cells may also die if most input is lost

Question 67

chromatolysis

Answer 67

neuron's cell body undergoes structural changes as it attempts to recover and regenerate the damaged axon.

Question 68

Collateral sprouting vs regenerative sprouting

Answer 68

Collateral- **neighbor** axons take over work of damaged one regenerative: damaged one sends **new** sprout to original target

Question 69

What is the speed of axonal growth after injury?

Answer 69

1mm/day or 1 inch a month

Question 70

Nerve growth factor is produced by ________ cells and they they form a sheath guiding the sprouting axon to its target cell

Answer 70

schwann cells

Question 71

Exercise starting at day _____ facilitates neuron regrowth and muscular reinnervation

Answer 71

5

Question 72

What is synkinesis?

Answer 72

**Regrowth** causes innervation of **inappropriate target**, leads to temporary movement abnormalities

Question 73

Most CNS damage after an injury occurs due to __________

Answer 73

secondary cascading events

Question 74

After an injury: Proximal axons experience ______ Distal axons experience ________

Answer 74

Chromatolysis Wallerian degeneration

Question 75

A traumatic brain injury can cause widespread tearing or stretching/disconnecting , this is called.....

Answer 75

DAI Diffuse axonal injury

Question 76

Glial scars (damaged glial cells) can block regrowth and release _______

Answer 76

NOGO Neurite outgrowth inhibitor NOGO is expressed in oligodendicytes and not schwann cells

Question 77

is nerve growth factor located in the PNS or CNS?

Answer 77

PNS

Question 78

Cell body death vs Axonal injury?

Answer 78

Cell body death **always** causes neuron death axonal injury may or may not cause cell death

Question 79

synaptic changes after injury

Answer 79

recovery of synaptic effectiveness denervation hypersensitivity synaptic hyper effectiveness unmasking/disinhibition of silent synapses

Question 80

recovery of synaptic effectiveness

Answer 80

resolution of edema compressing on axon allows resumption of normal cell function and synthesis/transport of neurotransmitters

Question 81

What is denervation hypersensitivity

Answer 81

Increased post-synpatic receptors available to accept Neurotransmitters released from neighboring neurons (increased sensitivity to neurotransmitters)

Question 82

What is synaptic hypereffectiveness

Answer 82

When pre-synaptic terminals are damaged, remaining post-synaptic branches receive all neurotransmitter that would normally be shared. (Remaining synapses now receive too mcuh input )

Question 83

What is the use it or lose it principle? Use it and improve it principle?

Answer 83

Failure to drive specific brain functons lead to functional degradation Opposite

Question 84

What is the specificity princple?

Answer 84

The nature of training dictates the nature of neuroplasticity

Question 85

Repetition matters principle

Answer 85

induction of neuroplasticity requires sufficient repetition

Question 86

Intensity matters principle

Answer 86

neuroplasticity requires sufficient training intensity

Question 87

Time matters principle

Answer 87

Different forms of plasticity happen at different times in training

Question 88

salience matters principle

Answer 88

the training must be salient to induce plasticity (pt must be aware and engaged)

Question 89

Age matters principle:

Answer 89

training induced neuroplasticity occurs more in younger brains

Question 90

transference principle

Answer 90

plasticity in response to one training can enhance simular behavior

Question 91

interference principle:

Answer 91

plasticity due to one experience can inferfere with acquisition of other behaviors