2.1.2 - Skill Acquisition Flashcards
(complete) (170 cards)
1
Q
Define skill
A
A learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both.
2
Q
What are the characteristics of skill? (and revision tip)
A
A - Aesthetically pleasing
C - Consistent
E - Efficient
F - Fluent
A - Accurate
C - Controlled
E - Economical
3
Q
Define continuum
A
A set of criteria on a scale which have particular characteristics to different degrees
4
Q
What is an open skill?
A
A skill performed within an unpredictable environment - needs to be practiced in a variety of situations (decisions need to adapt)
5
Q
What is a closed skill?
A
A skill performed within a predictable environment - repeated actions (fewer decisions to make)
6
Q
What is a gross skill?
A
A skill performed using large muscle groups e.g. tackling, dribbling
7
Q
What is a fine skill?
A
A skill performed using smaller, more intricate muscle groups e.g. archery, snooker, shooting (fine motor skills)
8
Q
What is a self-paced skill?
A
A skill where the performer controls the speed at which the skill is performed - often have some control over when to start it e.g. dance, serve in tennis, penalty.
9
Q
What is an externally-paced skill?
A
A skill where the performer has no control over when to start the skill or how fast it may be performed e.g. 100m sprint
10
Q
What is a discrete skill?
A
Where the skill has a clear beginning and end and is in one short, sharp action e.g. rugby tackle
11
Q
What is a continuous skill?
A
A skill with no clear beginning and end - often the end of one part of the skill is the start of the next part e.g. running
12
Q
What is a serial skill?
A
A skill with several discrete skills linked together in a specific order to form a completed task e.g. gymnastics routine
13
Q
What is a low organised skill?
A
A skill that is easily broken down into subroutines e.g. serve, 100m sprint
14
Q
What is a high organised skill?
A
A skill that is not easily broken down into parts e.g. dance routine
15
Q
What is a simple skill?
A
A skill that needs limited decisions to be processed during it’s execution - there is not a lot to think about as the skill is being completed
16
Q
What is a complex skill?
A
A skill where there may be many decisions to make - an amount of information is needed before the performer can attempt the skill
17
Q
Define transfer
A
The effect of the learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
18
Q
What are the 4 types of transfer?
A
Positive
Negative
Zero
Bilateral
19
Q
What is positive transfer?
A
When the learning of one skill helps the learning of another e.g. passing in netball and basketball
20
Q
What is negative transfer?
A
When the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another e.g. tennis and badminton serves
21
Q
What is zero transfer?
A
When the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another - therefore, no transfer between skills
e.g. a leap in dance has no impact on a chest pass in netball
22
Q
What is bilateral transfer?
A
When the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb e.g. footballers who are right footed learning the same skills on the left foot so they are balanced.
23
Q
How can a coach promote positive transfer?
A
- stop bad habits
- make sure first task is well learned before making progress (planned progression)
- point out similarities and transfer possibilities
- provide motivation
- realism (is it realistic)
24
Q
What is whole practice?
A
Where the task can be presented in it’s entirety with sub-routines intact
e.g. golf swing, tennis serve, kick in football
25
When should whole practice be used?
When the skill is:
- fast/ballistic
- closed
- discrete
-simple
-highly organised
good for beginners for them to get a feel for the movement before breaking it down (promotes understanding)
26
What is whole-part- whole practice?
Practised in it's entirety , then isolate a part or weakness to work on, then put it back into the whole skill
e.g. triple jump, routine, javelin
- Gives feedback and error correction, gives motivation, maintains feel of the skill
27
When should whole-part-whole practice be used?
use when:
- fast
-discrete
-hard to break down
- performer has weakness
28
Evaluation of whole practice?
:) - skill is more fluent
- may take shorter amount of time to perfect skill
- develops kinaesthesis
- keeps links between sub-routines
:( - unnecessary demand on performer
- performer can't cope with all aspects at once
- fatigue
- too much information so not for beginners
29
Evaluation of whole-part-whole practice?
:) - provides motivation
- weakness can be corrected
- provides immediate feedback
- fluency + integration of sub-routines maintained whilst errors are corrected
- maintains feel for whole skill
:( - could produce negative transfer if not put back into whole practice
- needs to be put back into skill straight away to be effective
- time consuming
- some skills cannot be broken down
30
What is progressive-part-practice?
- when parts of the skill are practised individually, in order, before being linked together and expanded
- sometimes called chaining
31
When should progressive-part-whole practice be used?
use when:
- dangerous
- when order is important
- complex and serial
- low organised and externally paced
e.g. routine
32
Evaluation of progressive-part-practice?
:) - performer can focus on one particular aspect
- chance of fatigue is reduced
- success in stages = motivation
- may improve confidence
- allows coach and performer to focus on specific aspect or weakness
- reduces danger
:( - time consuming
- neglect of the whole skill/tasks
- ignores links between sub-routines
- chance of negative transfer if the first part of the skill is not properly learned before moving onto the next
33
What are the methods of presenting practice?
- whole practice
- whole-part-whole practice
- progressive-part practice
34
What are the types of practice?
- massed practice
- distributed practice
- variable practice
- mental practice
35
What is massed practice?
It is continuous practice without rest periods
36
When should massed practice be used?
use when:
- skill is discrete
- skill is simple
- skill is closed
- performers are autonomous
37
Evaluation of massed practice?
:) - enhances overlearning of skills so they become habitual
- motor programmes formed and recalled more easily in future
- improves fitness
- efficient use of coach and player time
:( - causes fatigue
- performer may not be physically capable of undertaking the practice
- no time for feedback
- could lead to negative transfer if conditions aren't similar to a real game
38
What is distributed practice?
It is practice with rest periods included
39
When should distributed practice be used?
use when:
- used when skill is open and unpredictable
- when skill is complex
- when skill is externally paced
- when performer is a beginner
40
Evaluation of distributed practice?
:) - more effective than massed
- rest intervals allow for recovery
- allows time for mental practice
- coach can give feedback
- motivational
- takes pressure off performer
- reduces danger if practicing dangerous skills
:( - time consuming
- not useful for expert players who want to overlearn skills
- can cause negative transfer if it isn't integrated into practice
41
What sports would use massed practice?
- In basketball practising a free throw
- Doing a dance routine over and over
- Dives in diving
42
What sports may use distributed practice?
- Swimmer practising stroke technique in training
- Steeplechase athletics
43
What is variable practice?
It is practising skills and drills in a constantly changing environment
44
When should variable practice be used?
use when:
- skill is open
- skill is externally paced
- skill is complex
- when performers are beginners
45
Evaluation of variable practice?
:) - develops schema
- increases motivation and fun due to variety of practice
- performer experiences decision making similar to real situation
- helps build sub routines
- allows adaption
:( - time consuming
- can cause fatigue
- possibility of information overload
- can cause negative transfer
- can confuse performers to what their goal is
- too demanding
46
What sports may use variable practice?
- Netball
- Football (practising pass)
- Team sports
47
What is mental practice?
Going over the skill in your mind without moving
Can be:
Internal - seeing your performance from within through your own eyes
External - seeing your performance from outside as a spectator
48
When should mental practice be used?
Use when:
- skill is complex
- skill is serial
- when performers are cognitive or autonomous
49
Evaluation of mental practice?
:) - produces a clear mental image of the skill
- builds motor programmes
- can rehearse strategies and tactics
- increases motivation and confidence
- controls anxiety and arousal before performances
- prevents wear and tear as no movement actually takes place
- can be completed when injured to remain memory of skill
:( - difficult for cognitive performers to complete effectively
- must be accurate and correct
- difficult if environment is not quiet
- performers may overthink and start to doubt themselves
50
What sports may use mental practice?
- High jumpers
- Games players
- In Trampolining
51
What are the 3 stages of learning?
Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous
52
What is the cognitive stage of learning?
The first stage of learning used by a novice.
Understanding sub-routines of skills are explored by trail and error.
53
Characteristics of the cognitive stage of learning?
- slow movements
- un-coordinated and jerky movements (a lack of fluency)
- no motor programmes developed
- mental image is created
- demonstrations and verbal explanations necessary
- mental rehearsal required
- many mistakes made, inconsistent
- learns through observing (SLT)
- coach may use extrinsic feedback to help them
- need to think carefully about actions
54
What is the associative stage of learning?
The second stage of learning. Motor programmes are developed, and performance is smoother as they develop a better understanding of the task.
It is longer than the cognitive stage.
Largest changes occur in this stage of learning.
55
Characteristics of the associative stage of learning?
- performer moves from a competent beginner to an accomplished performer
- some never progress beyond this stage
- smoother movements
- subroutines are linked
- more coordinated movements and increased fluency
- motor programmes are developed
- fundamentals of skill improve
- practice to make progress
- improved selective attention
- develop kinaesthesis
- fewer mistakes + errors
- begin to focus on finer aspects of skill
- will use feedback
- may compare performance to top-class performer
- adjust practice
56
What is the autonomous stage of learning?
Final stage of learning, used by experts when movement is detailed and specific
57
Characteristics of the autonomous stage of learning?
- performer is classed as an expert
- improvements are slower as performer is fine tuning
- some performers never reach this stage
- fluent and efficient movement
- movement is automatically undertaken easily without conscious thought
- automatic control
- attention to detail
- learner is able to detect + correct areas
- increased self confidence
- high level of consistency
- quick processing time
- good selective attention
- concentrates on fine detail
- motor programmes fully developed
- only reached after effective practice
- feedback is intrinsic
58
What are motor programmes?
Components of the skill that are stored in the memory
59
What is positive feedback?
Providing information that was good/correct about the performance so it is repeated in the future.
-tells the player what is going well
-uses positive reinforcement
-gives motivation to maintain effort
-combined with praise to give a feel good factor
60
Advantages of positive feedback?
- Providing the feedback is given accurately, it gives reinforcement of correct or incorrect aspects of performance.
- Builds self-esteem and confidence in performance.
- Important for performers in cognitive stage to give positive reinforcement of the S-R bond.
61
Disadvantages of positive feedback?
- Performance can become over confident, and performance can fall (an incorrect S-R bond can be created).
- Some performers don't respond well to too much praise, and hence ignore feedback.
62
What is negative feedback?
Providing information that was incorrect/wrong with the performance so it is corrected in the future.
-uses negative reinforcement or negative criticism about poor performances
-enables errors to be corrected
-enables bad habits to be removed
-gives clarity on which part of the task needs to be improved
-should be used sparingly on cognitive performers
63
Advantages of negative feedback?
- Could refine and improve the performance of autonomous performers
64
Disadvantages of negative feedback?
- Can demotivate a performer, especially in the cognitive stage
- Does not encourage a performer especially if the feedback is inaccurate or unfounded
65
What is extrinsic feedback?
Feedback from an outside source e.g. coach
-can be positive or negative
-used to reinforce correct actions and correct errors
-performer gains a view of what they need to improve in or what they need to maintain
66
Advantages of extrinsic feedback?
- Provided the feedback is given accurately, it gives reinforcement or correct/incorrect aspects of a performance
67
Disadvantages of extrinsic feedback?
- May demotivate a performer if they don't understand the feedback
- Does not encourage as much kinesthesis awareness, and the performer can therefore become over-reliant on the coach
68
What is intrinsic feedback?
Internal feedback used to know if the skill has been completed correctly or not
-can be positive or negative
-with more experience the player can use intrinsic feedback
-kinesthesis is from within
69
Advantages of intrinsic feedback?
- Performer is independent since the feeling comes from within them
- Can create reinforcement, since a good feeling is linked to an outcome
- Can be used for error detection as a movement is in progress
- If the performer is in the autonomous stage of learning, performance is likely to be more accurate as it reinforces itself
70
Disadvantages of intrinsic feedback?
May not be accurate in early cognitive stage, since they wouldn't be experienced enough to relate the feeling to a correct response.
71
What is knowledge of results?
States if the skill is successful or not
-successful outcomes need to be maintained and unsuccessful ones eliminated
-forms an early basis of improvement
-can be success or failure
-information can be from the coach, video, press or TV
e.g. did the netball shot score? did the pass reach it's intended target?
72
What is knowledge of performance?
Feedback about the quality of performance e.g. technique used
-knowledge of the initial result is analysed in more detail through knowledge of performance
-analyses in detail
-gives reasons why the shot went in or not
-it is concerned with technique and how the technique can be developed to produce a better performance than the last attempt
73
What is important to consider before giving feedback?
- the stage of learning of the performer
- the type of feedback used
- ensure the feedback is effective, understandable and relevant to the performer
- some positives should be included to maintain motivation
- must be appropriate to the performance level
74
What is visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen, showing how to perform the skill, using the sense of sight.
e.g. coach demonstrating/ showing video of tumble turn
75
Advantages of visual guidance?
- Can highlight a specific weakness.
- Tries to show what the skill should look like as a result of practice.
- Creates a mental image often used with verbal guidance.
- Good for cognitive performers.
- Encourages observation learning by drawing attention to relevant cues.
76
Disadvantages of visual guidance?
- The demonstrations must be accurate and clear, otherwise it may be copied incorrectly.
- The performer may not have the ability to perform the correct demonstration.
- Too much information can cause confusion and information overload.
- If visual demonstration is too quick or unclear, bad habits could be developed.
- An accurate demonstration may not be available.
77
What is verbal guidance?
Verbal guidance is spoken guidance using words to explain a task.
e.g. listening to someone giving instructions
78
Advantages of verbal guidance?
- Helps to explain visual image.
- Provides detail in relation to technique+tactics.
- Cab be given immediately.
- Used effectively with visual guidance.
- Can be used to motivate a performer.
79
Disadvantages of verbal guidance?
- Can be time consuming.
- May be too much information.
- Language used may be difficult to understand.
- Can overload beginners with information.
- Not as useful when used by itself.
80
What is manual guidance?
It involves a coach or partner physically supporting/assisting and contracting a performer during a movement or when a coach forces a response from the performer.
e.g. physically supporting a gymnast through a vault
81
Advantages of manual guidance?
- Helps to eliminate danger.
- Helps to build confidence of the performer.
- Fear and anxiety associated with dangerous or difficult tasks may be reduced.
- More complex tasks can be broken down.
- Effective with cognitive.
- The whole skill can be attempted, allowing the performer to develop kinaesthesis.
82
Disadvantages of manual guidance?
- Can have a detrimental effect on performer if over used.
- Once initial feel of the task is establishes, too much reliance on physical support could interfere with the feel of the task.
- Close proximity may make some feel uncomfortable.
- Can restrict movement.
- Can restrict kinaesthetic awareness.
83
What is mechanical guidance?
Involves using artificial aids or objects/equipment to help a performance and shape movement.
e.g. arm bands, harness rig, stabilisers
84
Advantages of mechanical guidance?
- Builds confidence.
- Eliminates danger/improves safety.
- Gives an early feel for the whole skill.
- Can be used by disabled athletes.
- Can break down a skill into parts so they can be practised separately.
85
Disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
- If used for too much time, it can interfere with the feel of the task.
- The performer may become too dependent on the equipment and lose confidence as they cannot do it without it.
- Motivation can be lost.
- Can restrict movement.
- Can restrict kinaesthesis awareness.
86
What is a learning plateau?
A period of no improvement in performance when the learner stops progressing.
- lack of improvement can be shown on a graph called a learning curve
- plateauing can occur more than once
87
What is a learning curve?
A visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is performed repeatedly over a period of time by a novice.
It illustrates the rate of improvement when learning a new skill.
88
What does stage 1 of the learning curve involve?
The rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor as the performer is new to the task and in the cognitive stage of learning.
key points:
- low success rate
- slow, jerky movements
- developing an understanding
89
What does stage 2 of the learning curve involve?
Rapid acceleration in the rate of learning as the performer has begun to master the task and gain some success, providing reinforcement and motivation.
key points:
- sharp increase in success rate
- increased fluency
- high motivation
90
What does the stage 3 of the learning curve involve?
There is no improvement in the rate of learning and the performance has reached a plateau.
key points:
- plateau reached
- progress halted
- performance level is maintained
91
What does stage 4 of the learning curve involve?
A period towards the end of a task, when perhaps due to fatigue, the performance may deteriorate.
key points:
- reduced success rate
- motivation is reduced
- experiencing drive reduction
- new challenge/goal needed
92
What is drive reduction?
When there is a drop in the rate of improvement and the performance may actually start to get worse.
The initial drive to succeed has been lost.
A new challenge or extension to the task is needed to maintain motivation.
93
Causes of the learning plateau?
- lack of motivation
- boredom
- poor coaching
- limited ability
- targets set too low
- fatigue (mental or physical)
- poor fitness
- drive reduction
- injury or overtrained
- limit of the task
- cognitive stage
94
Why is motivation key to prevent a learning plateau?
- motivation keeps them keen to train hard on track
- motivation may help them to maintain focus on the goal they have set
- motivation may drive them to keep aiming for a new personal best
95
What are the solutions of the plateau effect?
- change target task/use variable practice (set smarter goals)
- change coach/coaching methods
- motivation
- rest/distributed practice
- variety
- responsibility (take personal responsibility for improvement)
- quality feedback and guidance
- explaining (of what the plateau is and future progress will be made)
- feedback
- fitness
- technical development
96
What is information processing?
The methods by which data from the environment are collected and utilised.
in sport it is...
Taking account of the sporting environments and then making decisions prior to the execution of a skill.
97
What does Whiting's model show?
The process of information processing.
98
What is the input data in Whiting's model?
The first stage where the performer uses their senses to pickup information from the sporting environment - which is also known as the display.
99
Examples of a display?
- opponent
- the court
- the crowd
- the ball
- your team
- officials
100
What do the receptor systems do in Whiting's model?
They involve the senses used to collect information from the sporting environment/display:
- sight
- auditory
- kinaesthesis
- equilibrium
- touch
101
What are the external senses?
Hearing
Sight
102
What are the internal senses?
Kinaesthesis
Balance
Touch
103
How is decision making relevant to Whiting's model?
The performer makes decision based on info collected via the senses.
104
What are the 3 central mechanisms in Whiting's model?
1. Perceptual mechanisms
2. Translatory mechanisms
3. Effector mechanisms
105
What occurs in the perceptual mechanisms?
- The process of coding and interpreting the information from the display which has been supplied by the senses/receptors (perception).
- Selective attention occurs here
- DCR process
106
What is DCR process?
Included in perception:
D = Detection
C = Comparison
R = Recognition
107
What is selective attention?
The process of filtering out irrelevant information and focussing on the relevant information.
It aids concentration/arousal levels and can increase reaction time.
108
What occurs in the translatory mechanisms?
- Helps to convert information so decisions can be made.
- Use past experiences so that information received can be linked with the past experiences and sent to the memory system.
- Actions are stored and can be recognised + used in the memory.
- Uses coded information from the perceptual process to pick out an appropriate motor programme.
109
What occurs in the effector mechanism?
- Involves a network of nerves that is responsible for delivering the decisions made during the perceptual process to muscles via impulses so that those muscles can perform the action.
- Muscles receive the information in the form of coded impulses - the muscles will then contract and the response can begin.
110
What does the muscular system do? (In Whiting's model)
Muscles receive the information in the form of coded impulses - the muscles will then contract and the response/action can begin.
111
What is the output data?
The response takes place.
Was it successful? Was it not?
112
What is feedback data?
During and after the response information about the movement is received through: internal, external, positive, negative knowledge of performance, knowledge of results.
113
Strategies to improve selective attention?
- training with crowd/distraction
- mental rehearsal
- coach can highlight important cues
- improving overall fitness (less distracting)
- increase the intensity of the stimulus by making the ball brighter, shouting louder or equivalent
- analysis of strengths and weaknesses of the opposition
114
What strategies can be used to ensure information stays in a performer's LTM?
→ Rewards - extrinsic + extrinsic
→ Association - association of actions you wish to learn with appropriate actions already in the LTM e.g. associating pride and satisfaction with the action
→ Mental practice - subroutines rehearsed mentally over and over without physical movement, helps when remembering sequence of skill
→ Breaking the task down - breaking task into parts, especially when complex, preventing information overload (also called chunking/chaining)
→ Focus - getting the performer to focus on the task at hand and ignoring distractions aiding selective attention (ensure correct info goes to STM then LTM)
→ Repetition of an action - repeating requires action/skill ensuring a motor programme is formed within LTM
115
Who proposed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
116
Components of the working memory model?
1. Central executive
2. Phonological loop
3. Visiospatial sketchpad
4. Episodic buffer
5. LTM
117
What does the central executive do?
Has overall control over all the information entering and leaving the working memory.
It quickly identifies which information should be sent to one of the sub-systems.
118
What does the phonological loop do?
Deals with auditory information presented from the senses.
This memory trace , which is an initial mental idea of the skill, can be sent to the LTM where it can trigger a motor programme, or images that contain components of a skill.
The motor programme can be used to produce movement.
119
Sub-systems of the phonological loop?
Phonological store: Inner ear → holds words in which we hear
Articulatory process: Inner voice → allows us to repeat words in a loop
120
What does the visuospatial sketchpad do?
Concerns visual (sight) and spatial (where) information.
Helps to process information about the feel of the movement such as the flight of a gymnast during a vault.
121
Sub-systems of the visuospatial sketchpad?
Visual cache: Information about form and colour
Inner scribe: Spatial and movement information
122
What does the episodic buffer do?
Responsible for coordinating the work of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad into sequences.
Produces integrated sequences of sight, sound and movements which are sent to LTM.
Sequences are the starting point for the initiation of motor programmes to perform movement.
123
How does the working memory link with the long term memory?
→ The working memory initiates the action by sending the memory trace.
→ The memory trace produced can be compared to information (motor programmes) already contained in the storage of the LTM.
→ Information from the LTM can then send information back to the working memory for use in the current sporting situation.
→ Memories work together as a two-way process.
→ This helps the performer compare information and make a decision.
E.g. in dance, the working memory would send an image or trace of the position required when the music starts from LTM
124
Capacity of working memory?
Around 7 pieces of info (limited)
125
Duration of working memory?
Lasts for around 30 seconds
126
Capacity and duration of LTM?
Capacity - possibly unlimited
Duration - potential lifetime
127
Define reaction time
The time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the onset of the response (involves no movement).
(the fraction of a second it takes us to process the available selected stimuli) e.g. at start of race reacting to gun.
128
Define movement time
Time taken to complete the task after information processing has taken place.
(the time from start to the end of the action for the required task) e.g. in 100m sprint, it would be the time between pushing off the blocks and hitting the finish line.
129
Define response time
The total time it takes from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the task.
E.g. in 100m race → the time between hearing the gun and crossing the finish line.
130
Response time equation?
Response time = reaction time + movement time
131
What are the types of reaction time?
1. Simple reaction time
2. Choice reaction time
132
What is simple reaction time?
- has one option to one stimulus
- should be fast as it is the only thing they have to think about
E.g. a sprinter/swimmer start
133
What is choice reaction time?
- has more than one stimulus to choose from and maybe more than one response to make
- many options so it is a slower process
E.g. a midfielder with the ball in football deciding what to do
134
What is Hick’s law?
As the number of choices increases, so does the reaction time.
- can be used to players advantage as it can be used to keep opponents guessing e.g. changing serve in tennis will increase response preparation time and hopefully delay the opponents actions
BUT
- not always an advantage as the opponent could adapt and become familiar to the types of shots being played meaning their response may become quicker (especially if autonomous performer)
135
What is the single channel hypothesis?
States that stimuli can only be processed one at a time.
→ a seconds stimulus must wait until the first has been processed before it can be processed
→ the delay in processing a seconds stimulus increases response time, which explains Hick’s law: the more choices, the slower the response
136
What is the psychological refractory period?
Explains the delay that occurs because we can only process one stimulus at a time.
The delay occurs due to the confusion caused by a second stimulus arriving before the first is processed (the psychological refractory period).
→ The performer may freeze for a split second to sort out the conflicting information e.g. dancer may freeze when music plays before beginning movement.
137
What is anticipation?
When a performer tries to pre-judge a stimulus.
→ the performer tries to work out what is going to happen before it does by using information from the environment or using relevant cues
E.g. knowing where to stand in tennis based on opponents serve
138
Two types of anticipation?
Temporal anticipation = pre-judging when the stimulus is going to happen
Spatial anticipation = pre-judges where and what the projected stimuli are going to be
139
How can response time be improved?
- mental practice
- training to the specific stimulus
- focus’s and concentration on stimulus (may be by making stimulus more intense)
- improving fitness (improves selective attention)
- anticipation
140
What does schema theory suggest?
Instead of using a structured set of movements to develop skills, the core principles can be taken from an existing motor programme and then adapted to the new skill being learned.
May be based on environment/feedback.
141
Example of schema theory?
Javelin:
The motor programme formed for a javelin throw is made up of sub-routines such as grip, arm action and follow-through.
This can be adapted for the use of a goalkeeper’s throw in football.
142
What is a recall schema and what two features is it responsible for?
It is responsible for initiating the schema.
1. Initial conditions - information from sporting environment
2. Response specification - the information is used to asses what options are available to the performer e.g. how far away is my nearest teammate?
143
What is a recognition schema and what two features is it responsible for?
It is responsible for control of the movement and used during the action.
3. Sensory consequences - the use of the senses help guide the movement/info about the feel of the movement
4. Response outcome - schema and motor programme updated by getting knowledge of the result of the action e.g. was it successful?
144
Implications of Schema theory on a way a coach should teach?
- vary the task
- frequent feedback to the player
- parts of the skill that can be transferred are highlighted to the player
- reinforcement through praise and encouragement (to motivate player)
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What is insight learning?
- When a performer uses existing sporting knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with a sporting problem
- Player presented with a problem → sporting knowledge used to work out solution → ideas tried to overcome problem
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Who created insight learning?
The “Gestaltists”- Werthelmer, Kholer and Kofta
Gestalt in German means: whole, configuration, pattern or form
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What are the 4 laws of insight learning?
1. The law of similarity → similar ideas and experiences are associated
2. Law of continuity → easier to learn with continuity as in the end it makes up a ‘whole’
3. Law of proximity → states that it is easier to learn something within proximity (you are near to) than things that are further away
4. The law of closure → states we prefer whole rather than incomplete
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Advantages of insight learning?
→ As it is related to the whole task rather than parts it is good for realistic situations such as a game, performance or event
→ If the tactic works it gives the performer intrinsic motivation and self-satisfaction
→ Creates questions for performer (but is not counted as trial and error)
→ Encourages the performer to think for themselves and develop cognitive process
→ Generates more understanding of the actions of the skill and why we do it rather than the coach telling us to do something with no explanation
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What are the stages of insight learning?
1. Perceive the problem/situation
2. Attempt trail and error
3. Contemplate/think
4. Sudden insight (“Eureka moment”)
5. Apply and solve the solution
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Key features of Skinner’s operant conditioning theory?
- trail and error
- shaping behaviour through reinforcement
- manipulation of the environment
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How does a coach manipulate coaching to ensure learning of skills?
- use of rewards → more likely to be repeated
- praise → if you feel you have done something well, you are more likely to remember it
- reinforcement → to link the correct response to a stimulus
- behaviourist theory → connecting stimulus to response
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What experiment did Skinner carry out? (1948)
Observed rats in a box to watch how they learned - “Skinner’s Box”.
Every time the rats touched the cage, food was delivered.
At first, rats touched it by accident but quickly learned that if they touched the cage they would get fed.
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What is the aim of operant conditioning?
To strengthen the stimulus-response bond
Meaning selective the appropriate response to the stimulus (dominant response)
E.g. in a game of badminton if the shuttle is returned high in the air + mid court what should should be used?
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What is positive reinforcement?
Manipulating the stimulus so that it is pleasant
The learner will give the correct response
E.g. clapping, cheering, praise, encouragement etc
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What is negative reinforcement?
Promotes the correct response/action to the stimulus by taking away an unpleasant stimulus when the performer does it right.
Negative criticism/feedback is taken away when the performer carries out the skill correctly.
E.g. shouting “No!” at hockey player until they perform the correct technique and not saying anything when they are correct.
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What is punishment?
When a coach gives an unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions from happening again.
E.g. a player getting a red card in football will learn to to commit the foul again.
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What types of practice may be used with operant conditioning?
→ Whole or whole-part-whole to isolate key aspects of the task/another means of manipulating the environment
→ Mental practice to go over the correct technique of the skill and shape behaviour
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What is Bandura’s observational learning theory?
→ Accpetable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching then copying other people
→ Coaches can use this to their advantage within the use of demonstrations from role models to ensure performers are successfully copying skills
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What are the 4 stages of Bandura’s observational learning theory?
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Production
4. Motivation
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What is involved in attention? (Stage 1)
Ensuring the performer takes note of the relevant cues
- the more attractive the demonstration, the more likely it is to be copied
- give dental on why you want them to learn it
- make demonstration/model loud, bright or attractive for learner so they are more likely to remember it
- information from the coach is loud and clear
- the demonstration must always be accurate and correct
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What is involved in retention? (Stage 2)
The ability to remember important information and recall it from the memory system
- chunking information within the demonstration so that the learner is able to recall it
- the use of a role model/expert player may ensure accurate demonstration given
- learner must attempt skill as soon as it is seen so that it is fresh in the mind
- practice as soon as possible so the performer can remember how to do it
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What is involved in motor production? (Stage 3)
Making sure the performer is physically capable of copying the demonstration
- skill is the same level of ability as the performer
- making sure the task is understood
- in the early stage of learning task should be made easy and then making progress to more complex
- time to practice and learn well before moving on the the next part of the task
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What is involved in motivation? (Stage 4)
The drive needed to copy the demonstration
- the use of praise and rewards
- positive feedback and positive reinforcement
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What increases the likelihood of a demonstration/behaviour being copied?
If the demonstration is:
- close to appropriate social norms → they are performed by a player of similar ability
- reinforced → strengthened and supported
- powerful, visual and physical
- consistent
- relevant
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What is social development theory?
→ Interaction with others can play a vital role within learning
→ Skills can be learned from coaches/teachers known as the ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO)
→ MKO does not just give direct examples and advice but can influence a learner by demonstrating values and actions such as; fair play, sportsmanship
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What is inter-psychological learning?
→ Development and learning of skills are from the coach/teacher when the learner uses the MKO to gain advice, feedback and tactical knowledge
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What is intra-psychological learning?
→ Learning from within
→ Learner uses cognitive aspects of skill acquisition to internally analyse, think about and construct actions based on what they have learned externally
→ Takes place after inter-psychological learning
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What is constructivism?
→ Build on what you know
→ Learning from MKO and what you already know = building up skills
→ Learner will assess what level they are working at and what they need to know in order to reach the next level:
Zone of Proximal Development
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What is involved in the zone of proximal development?
1. What can I do alone?
2. What can I do with help?
3. What can I not yet do?
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How may you achieve the skill you can’t yet do?
→ observe and copy others and take advice
→ learning and copying from others = social learning
→ the actual actions that are needed to reach the next stage are up to the learner and will be decided based on the learner’s experience and expectations
