3.1.1 - Applied anatomy and physiology (cardio+respiratory system, musculoskeletal system) Flashcards
(complete) (135 cards)
1
Q
Define health
A
A state of complete physical ,mental, emotional and social well being, not merely the absence of illness
2
Q
What is the impact of physical activity and sport on mental health?
A
- Sport challenges a performer to make decisions, apply tactics and solve problems.
- Over time it improves mental capacity to deal with more demanding sporting situations.
- Allows the individual to cope better with relatively simple cognitive tasks they face day to day.
3
Q
What is the impact of physical activity and sport on emotional health?
A
- Physical activity releases endorphins in a participants brain.
- This plays a part in boosting mood, relieving anxiety and helping in the removal of stress.
4
Q
What is the impact of physical activity and sport on social health?
A
- Particularly in team sports, participants can develop leadership, teamwork and communicative skills.
- Also form friendships with other performers.
5
Q
What is the impact of physical activity and sport on physical health?
A
-Regular physical activity raises HR, blood flow and the demand for energy.
- This means coronary blood vessel experience regular changes and use.
- This reduces the risk of build up of fatty deposits or cholesterol against the vessel walls.
6
Q
How does exercise benefit the coronary blood vessels?
A
- Exercise ensures blood vessel tissue remains pliable and responsive to neural commands and can vasoconstrict/vasodilate appropriately.
- This means when blood pressure increases, the coronary vessels are capable of expanding and coping with increasing peripheral resistance.
7
Q
How may a lack of exercise negatively impact coronary blood vessels?
A
- A lack of exercise could cause the vessel to rupture, or the cardiac muscle to be starved of oxygen (heart attack).
8
Q
What are the 4 causes of deteriorating coronary blood vessels?
A
Smoking
Alcohol
Sedentary lifestyle
A high-fat diet
9
Q
What is atherosclerosis?
A
Occurs when the arteries harden and narrow as they become clogged up by fatty deposits.
This stops the heart from getting deoxygenated blood.
10
Q
Causes of atherosclerosis?
A
- high blood pressure
- high levels of cholesterol
- lack of exercise
- smoking
11
Q
What is atheroma?
A
A fatty deposit found in the inner lining of an artery.
12
Q
Cause of atheroma?
A
- breakage of fatty deposits
- high cholesterol
13
Q
What is angina?
A
Chest pain that occurs when the blood supply through the coronary arteries to the muscles of the heart is restricted.
This can cause a blood clot which results in a blockage forming, and thus can cause a cut off of oxygenated blood to the cardiac muscle, resulting in a heart attack.
14
Q
What are LDL’s?
A
Low density lipoproteins.
Transport cholesterol in the blood to the tissues.
Classed as ‘bad’ cholesterol as it is linked to an increased risk of heart disease.
15
Q
What are HDL’s?
A
High density lipoproteins.
Transport excess cholesterol in the blood back to the liver where it is broken down (and disposed of).
Classed as ‘good’ cholesterol as it lowers the risk of heart disease.
16
Q
What are HDL’s?
A
High density lipoproteins.
Transport excess cholesterol in the blood back to the liver where it is broken down (and disposed of).
Classed as ‘good’ cholesterol as it lowers the risk of heart disease.
17
Q
How can cholesterol levels be improved?
A
- aerobic activities
- low-fat diet
- regular exercise
18
Q
What is cardiac hypertrophy?
A
Placing the heart under regular strain that causes positive adaptations of the heart to occur.
The heart becomes bigger and more pliable.
19
Q
Benefits of cardiac hypertrophy?
A
- more forceful contractions
- increased stroke volume
- increased cardiac output
- increased ejection fraction
- bradycardia (resting HR 60 or below)
- increased capillarization
20
Q
What is sub-max exercise?
A
Reaches 60-80% of maximum HR
- Causes a significant increase in venous return due to vascular shunt mechanisms.
- The result of this increase, it is the chambers of the heart become gradually stretched overtime, increasing diastolic fill.
21
Q
What is maximum exercise?
A
Reaches 80-90% of maximum HR
- Causes muscles to contract fully, which press on nearby blood vessels, restricting the blood flow through them.
- This causes a sharp increase in blood pressure.
- Frequent training of this causes the cardiac muscle to become stronger as it has to adapt to eject blood against higher levels of resistance.
22
Q
What is stroke volume?
A
The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart per beat.
23
Q
What is heart rate?
A
The number of beats per minute.
24
Q
What is cardiac output?
A
The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in 1 minute.
25
What is ejection fraction?
The % of blood pumped out by the left ventricle per beat.
26
What is Starling's law?
Increased venous return ➤ greater diastolic filling ➤ the cardiac muscle stretches ➤ more forceful contractions ➤ increased ejection fraction/ stroke volume/ cardiac output
27
What are short-term effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system?
- increased HR (due to rising adrenaline levels)
- increased stroke volume (due to stronger ventricular contractions)
- increased cardiac output
28
Effects on the cardiovascular system for untrained individuals?
- have a lower stroke volume.
- their resting HR is likely to be higher.
- the heart needs more oxygen as it needs to work harder, meaning less oxygen is available for working muscles.
29
Define cardiac cycle
The mechanical contraction of the heart
30
What is the diastole phase of the cardiac cycle?
1. The heart at this point is relaxing and filling up with blood.
2. The atria fill with blood and pressure builds within these chambers.
3. As the pressure increases, the valves begin to slowly open and let small amounts of blood through.
31
What is the systole phase of the cardiac cycle?
Pressure has built up in the atria during diastole phase
𝐀𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞:
1. Valves are now forced open, both atrial contract and remaining blood is forced into ventricles.
𝐕𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞:
2. Blood is now in ventricles, ventricles now contract increasing the pressure within these chambers.
3. Aortic valve and pulmonary valve are forced open, allowing blood to be pushed through into the aorta or pulmonary artery.
32
How is the heart myogenic?
As the impulse for a heart beat is initiated by the heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) rather than from brain signals.
33
What is the process of the conduction system of the heart?
The impulse starts in the SA node ➤ travels down to AV node ➤ into the bundle of His ➤ impulse travels down left and right branches ➤ goes into Purkinje fibres ➤ ventricles are squeezed/contracted
Cycle then starts again
34
What is the Sion-atrial node and what does it do?
A small mass of cardiac muscle found in the wall of the right atrium that generates the heartbeat
It is more commonly called the pacemaker
35
What is the Atroventricular node and what does it do?
This node relays the impulse between the upper and lower sections of the heart
It delays the impulse by 0.1 s to allow the atria to fully empty
36
What is the bundle of His and what does it do?
A collection of heart muscle cells
They transmit electrical impulses from the AVN via the ventricles
37
What are the Purkinje fibres and what do they do?
Muscle fibres
They conduct the impulses in the walls of the ventricles
38
What are the 3 pulmonary ventilation regulation systems in the cardiac control centre?
Intrinsic control
Neural control
Hormonal control
39
What does the intrinsic control system involve?
𝐕𝐞𝐧𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧:
Causes changes in cardiac performance. If more blood is returning, more blood can be ejected per contraction.
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐨 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬:
Detect changes in blood, joint and muscle temperature which indicates exercise.
40
What does the hormonal control system involve?
𝐀𝐝𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞:
Released due to stress and increases HR. Can increase the speed and quality of the SA node impulses and contractile strength.
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞:
Increases the transmission speed of nerve impulses.
𝐀𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐲𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞:
Decreases the transmission speed of nerve impulses.
41
What does the neural control system involve?
𝐁𝐚𝐫𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐩𝐞𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 (chemical):
Detect stretch and pressure changes in blood vessels.
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬:
Detect movement and stretch in muscles.
𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬:
Detect changes in p.H, pp02 and ppC02.
42
How does the vascular shunt system work during exercise?
Chemoreceptors / baroreceptors / proprioceptors detect changes and send a message to the medulla oblongata/vasomotor centre where blood flow is controlled as:
There is a higher demand for blood during exercise therefore blood vessels suppling to working muscles dilate to increase flow to their destinations.
Vessels to lower priority tissue constrict, restricting blood flow to their destinations (e.g. digestive system).
43
What are pre-capillary sphincters and what do they do?
They are rings of tissue at the entrance to a blood vessel.
When contracted, they lock off the proceeding vessel and there is limited blood flow to the areas that vessel supplies.
This are responsible for vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
44
Define venous return
The process of moving blood residing in the veins back to the right side of the heart.
45
What 5 mechanisms assist venous return?
1. Skeletal muscle pump
2. Pocket valves
3. Atrial suction
4. Smooth muscle
5. Respiratory pump
46
What is the skeletal muscle pump mechanism?
As muscles contact and relax, pressure is applied on nearby veins, creating a pumping effect, squeezing the blood back towards the heart.
47
What are pocket valves?
They are valves that allow blood through, but close up once pressure drops to prevent backflow. (semilunar valves)
48
What the atrial suction mechanism?
Following atria systole, the chamber walls return to their resting position.
This expansion causes a drop in pressure which is balanced by drawing blood from the vena cava in to the empty atria.
49
What is vascular smooth muscle?
A thin layer of muscle that can be twitched by the automatic control of the Vasomotor Control Centre.
This twitch helps to squeeze blood through the veins and back in the direction of the heart.
50
What is the respiratory pump mechanism?
Thoracic and abdomen expansion during heightened breathing supplies pressure on the nearby vein walls, assisting the return of blood to the heart.
51
What is arterio-venous difference?
The difference between the 02 content of the arterial blood arriving at the muscles and the venous blood leaving the muscles.
52
Process of cardiovascular drift?
It occurs after 10 minutes of exercise.
At this point, heart rate increases, stroke volume decreases.
Fluid is lost as sweat resulting in a reduced plasma and reduced venous return.
Cardiac output also increases due to more energy needed to cool down the body.
53
Impact of cardiovascular drift on body?
- an individual will sweat
- some blood can be redirected to the skin for heat loss
- increases viscosity of blood / decreases blood plasma volume
- can lead to reduction in venous return
- reduced stroke volume
- heart rate will increase to maintain cardiac output (starling's law)
54
What is the role of carbon dioxide in the cardiovascular system?
- aerobic respiration produces C02 as a by-product that when dissolved in blood and surrounding tissue forms carbonic acid.
- acidity reduces a muscles ability to function, causing the performer to experience fatigue.
- when oxygen levels drop or C02 levels/blood acidity rises, chemoreceptors are there to detect it.
- they relay this information to the medulla oblongata which then uses appropriate motor neurons to activate the SNS or PNS, to regulate heart rate and contractile force.
55
How is oxygen transported to working muscles?
Oxygen and nutrients are transported by haemoglobin and plasma to sustain respiration.
There are higher concentrations of oxygen in the blood compared to the working tissue, creating a diffusion gradient that causes oxygen to pass from the blood, through the capillary and into nearby cells.
Without constant and sufficient supply, exercise intensity would decrease and fatigue would ensue (set in).
56
Define plasma
The fluid part of the blood (mainly water) that surrounds blood cells and transports them.
57
Define haemoglobin
An iron-containing pigment found in red blood cells, which combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
58
Define myoglobin
Often called 'muscle haemoglobin'.
It is an iron-containing muscle pigment in slow-twitch muscle fibres which has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin.
It stores the oxygen in the muscle fibres which can be used quickly when exercise begins.
59
Define mitochondria
Often referred to as the 'powerhouse' of the cell as respiration and energy production occur there.
60
Define partial pressure
The measure of how much of a particular gas is filling a particular space.
e.g. in a mixture of gases, what proportion of the total volume is made up of each gas.
61
When will a diffusion gradient occur?
When the partial pressure of a gas are different in two areas that are next to each other.
When there is a higher partial pressure of one gas in one place, compared to another of a lower partial pressure, then gas will flow from the area of higher pressure to the one of the lower pressure.
62
Example of diffusion gradient in the body?
The alveoli and lung capillary.
The partial pressure of oxygen in the atmospheric air that has just been inhaled into the lungs and each alveoli, is higher than the pressure of oxygen found in the blood supply flowing past the alveoli wall.
63
What does the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve suggest?
- haemoglobin carries oxygen within the blood.
- once it has picked up oxygen at the alveoli it is said to have become oxygenated.
- the venous system transports oxygenated blood to the areas in demand of fresh oxygen (working muscles).
- capillary blood oxygen partial pressure is higher than the muscle site's partial pressure of oxygen therefore a diffusion gradient is created (02 diffuses out of blood into muscle).
- at muscle sites with lower partial pressures of oxygen, more diffusion takes place, and more oxygen dissociates from haemoglobin and enters the muscle.
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐞𝐱𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠, 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞 '𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐟𝐭𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭' (𝐁𝐨𝐡𝐫 𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐟𝐭)
64
Causes of the Bohr shift?
Increase in blood temp, increased partial pressure of C02, reduced pH
Exercise increases the production of carbon dioxide and lactic acid, which both lower pH and thus acidity.
Muscular contractions and cellular metabolism generate heat as a by-product, which warms the blood and muscle site.
Myoglobin has an increased affinity for oxygen in warm and acidic environments, and pulls more oxygen away from haemoglobin and into the muscle site.
65
Define blood pressure
The force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels.
(Blood flow x resistance)
66
What are the 2 main factors influencing blood pressure?
1.𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐜 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 - the volume of blood flowing into the system from the left ventricle
2.𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 - could be due to viscosity of the blood, blood vessel length or radius.
67
What are the typical resting values of blood pressure?
Measured in millimetres of mercury:
120mmHg/80mmHg
The top reading is the systolic reading (pressure from left ventricle pumping blood into system).
The bottom reading is the diastolic reading (pressure when the heart relaxes and fills with blood).
68
What happens to blood pressure during sub-max exercise?
- systolic pressure increases due to increased cardiac output and demand of oxygen from working muscles.
- diastolic pressure normally remains at a steady state.
69
What happens to blood pressure during maximal exercise?
- systolic pressure increases due to increased cardiac output and demand of oxygen from working muscles.
- diastolic pressure also increases but only slightly due to resistance within blood vessels.
70
What is hypertension?
- When your blood pressure is continually higher than the recommended level.
- It can increase your risk of a heart attack or stroke.
- High blood pressure if you consistently get readings of 140mmHg/90mmHg or higher.
71
Who is most at risk of hypertension?
Those who....
- are overweight
- have a relatively high blood pressure
- smoke
- eat too much salt
- don't eat enough fruit/vegetables
- don't drink enough water
- do not do enough exercise
72
Define pulmonary ventilation
The exchange of air between the lungs and the surrounding atmosphere
73
Define minute ventilation
The volume of air breathed in OR out per minute (at rest = 6-9 litres)
74
Define tidal volume
The volume of air that is breathed in OR out during pulmonary ventilation
75
Define total capacity
Maximal lung volume (vital capacity + residual volume)
76
Define residual volume
The air remaining following a maximal exhalation
77
Define vital capacity
The amount of lung space that is usable (total capacity - residual volume)
78
Define inspiratory reserve volume
The volume of additional air that can be inhaled on top of regular tidal volume
79
Define expiratory reserve volume
The volume of additional air that can be exhaled beyond regular tidal volume
80
What does the mechanics of breathing involve?
This refers to the body's mechanisms, structures and muscles that engage together to alter the shape of the thoracic cavity to create pressure gradients that lead to the flow of air.
81
What mechanics occur during inspiration at rest?
- diaphragm flattens
- external intercostal muscles contract
- rib cage moves up and out
- thoracic cavity volume increases
- air pressure drops
- air rushes in ACTIVELY
82
What mechanics occur during inspiration during exercise?
- sternocleidomastoid, scalene and pectoralis minor muscles contract to increase speed and force of inspiration
- thoracic cavity expands to a greater size creating more space for air to rush in
83
What mechanics occur during exhalation at rest?
- diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome shape
- external intercostal muscles relax
- rib cage moves down and in
- thoracic cavity volume decreases
- air pressure increases
- air rushes out PASSIVELY
84
What mechanics occur during exhalation during exercise?
- obliques and rectus abdominal muscles contract
- internal intercostal muscles contract
- thoracic cavity decreases in volume rapidly
- air rushes out ACTIVELY
85
Define diffusion
The movement of gases between areas of different pressure
86
When does diffusion occur?
When a 'gradient' is created by one area having a higher pressure than the other.
Gas diffuses from high pressure to low pressure (this continues until an equilibrium is reached).
87
Define partial pressure
The force exerted by a gas within an environment
88
Explain alveoli gas exchange.
- occurs between the alveoli and capillaries
- oxygen is diffused into the blood from the alveoli, and carbon dioxide is diffused from the blood into the alveoli
- gases move from high pressure to low pressure across the respiratory membrane created by the thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries
- oxygen attaches to haemoglobin, and C02 is extracted from blood plasma
89
Why is alveoli gas exchange effective?
- large diffusion gradients, which increases during exercise
- capillary membrane is one cell thick making the diffusion distance very short
- capillaries are narrow, allowing them to flatten red blood cells in single file, increasing the opportunity for gas exchange to occur
- large networks of capillaries surround muscles and organs = increase opportunity for gas exchange
- myoglobin within muscles have higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin so oxygen dissociation is promoted
90
What controls respiration?
The respiratory control centre (in the Medulla Oblongata in the brain)
Within this = Expiratory and Inspiratory Control Centres
Both of these are responsible for physiological responses to alter pulmonary ventilation (breathing) - the aim is to increase HR and depth of breathing when exercise is detected.
91
What is the Expiratory Control Centre responsible for?
Stimulation of rectus abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles to cause forced expiration.
The Hering-Breuer Reflex-Stretch receptors signal maximum inhalation, ECC initiates active expiration.
92
What is the Inspiratory Control Centre responsible for?
Increase in contraction force and frequency of the diaphragm, external intercostal muscles, sternocleidomastoid and pectorals minor.
Activation of the ECC to begin it's response mechanisms.
93
How does the neural and chemical regulation of breathing occur? (DRG,VRG)
Occurs in Medulla Oblongata (respiratory control centre)
- This centre sends neuro transmissions via the Dorsal Respiratory group neurons (DRG) and the Ventral Respiratory Group neurons (VRG).
- These neurons deliver action potential to the respiratory muscles responsible for the mechanics of breathing.
- DRG neurons increase the force of contractions + cause breaths to be deeper.
- VRG neurons control frequency of contractions and impact breathing rhythm.
94
How does hormonal control of breathing occur?
- In the immediate stages of exercise, existing oxygen supplies in the blood and muscle are depleted faster than the resting rate of retrieval.
- Results in slight hypoxia (lack of 02 - detected by chemoreceptors and adrenal gland).
- Adrenaline is secreted within the sympathetic nervous system causing transmissions to be sent faster with greater action potential.
Summary- provides jump start to body, increases pulmonary ventilation in order to counteract slightly hypoxic state exercise created.
95
Chemoreceptors role in breathing?
- Detect changes in C02 and 02 levels as well as the increased acidity of blood when exercise starts.
- This prompts the RCC (respiratory control centre) to make changes to minute ventilation (amount of air that enters the lungs per minute).
96
Baroreceptors role in breathing?
- Detect changes in pressures
- When exercise commences, muscles contract and squeeze proximal blood vessels.
- This increase in blood pressure is detected and sent to the RCC so that appropriate responses can be made.
97
Stretch receptors role in breathing?
- Stretch receptors in the lungs detect when inspiration is reaching it's limit.
- Overfill during inspiration causes the lungs to over expand and stretch the lung walls.
- This info signals to the RCC to utilise the DRG and VRG neurons to increase expiratory depth and frequency.
98
What impact do good lifestyle choices have on the respiratory system?
- Muscular hypertrophy
- Heightened metabolism
- Improved cardio-respiratory capabilities
99
What impact do poor lifestyle choices have on lifestyle?
- Inactivity
- Heart disease and strokes
- Obesity and diabetes (on the rise for sedentary adults)
£1Billion in NHS costs
100
Poor lifestyle choices examples?
- Poor work/life balance
- Smoking
- Diet (high in cholesterol)
- Alcohol
101
How does a poor work-life balance impact the respiratory system?
An imbalance in work life and home life can lead to unhealthy stress responses.
- stress responses occur psychologically and physiologically due to the release of hormones adrenaline and cortisol
- these can elevate breathing rate and blood pressure which can contribute to difficulty in gaseous exchange
102
How does smoking impact the respiratory system?
- increases the risk of CHD due to damage of coronary heart vessels
- irritation of the trachea and bronchi
- increases risk of lung cancer due to inhalation of harmful substances and irritants that poison living tissue
- restricted oxygen transport due to carbon monoxide attaching to haemoglobin
- narrowed airways due to inflammation of walls and lining
103
Impact different lifestyle choices have on oxygen transport?
Cholesterol build up in coronary vessels → blood pressure remains high which reduces 02 diffusion in cardiac muscle - means heart cannot work as hard for long, supplying less oxygenated blood to the body (reduced cardiac output).
High blood pressure → sustained high blood pressure can cause prolonged stress on smaller blood vessels and heart - damage could reduce diffusion capabilities.
Tar in alveoli → created larger diffusion distance, the haemoglobin attraction and diffusion gradient of C02 is less effective.
Carbon monoxide inhalation → C0 binds with haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin which has a greater affinity for C0 than 02, meaning 02 won’t be carried.
Atherosclerosis → Fatty deposits in blood vessels increases blood pressure and diffusion differences.
Arteriosclerosis → Rigid vessel walls are unable to dilate and increase the surface area of their walls in contact with the nearby living tissue. Blood pressure remains high and diffusion needs to continue over a greater distance.
104
Examples of movements in sagittal plane and transverse axis? (And what is it)
Push ups, somersault, chest pass, walkover
Sagittal plane: splits body into left and right sides
Transverse axis: runs horizontally across body
105
What is involved in a shoulder movement action? (Sagittal plane transverse axis)
flexion and extension can be achieved
- whenever we move forward from anatomical position, flexion is occurring
- when we return to anatomical position we are completing extension
- to go behind anatomical position is known as hyper-extension
106
What is involved in a hip movement action? (Sagittal plane transverse axis)
Flexion is achieved at the hip when the femur moves forwards from the body and up towards being horizontal to the hip.
107
Ankle movement action? (Sagittal plane transverse axis)
Dorsi-flexion and plantar-flexion
E.g. pointing toes, sprint start
108
What is an isometric contraction?
When the muscle is contracting but there is no movement.
109
What is an isotonic contraction?
When the muscle contracts to create movement.
110
What are the 2 types of isotonic contraction?
1. Eccentric - muscle fibres contract to lengthen muscle (usually downwards movements)
2. Concentric - muscle fibres contract to shorten muscle (usually upwards movements)
111
3 types of joint?
Fixed (fibrous)
Slightly moveable (cartilaginous)
Synovial (freely moveable)
112
5 main joints we need go know?
- Shoulder
- Hip
- Elbow
- Knee
- Ankle
113
What type of joint is the shoulder joint, and what are the articulating bones and types of movement?
Type: Ball and socket
Articulating bones: Humerus and scapula
Types of movement: Flexion, extension, hyper extension, abduction, adduction, horizontal abduction (extension), horizontal adduction (flexion)
114
What type of joint is the hip joint, and what are the articulating bones and types of movement?
Type: Ball and socket
Articulating bones: Femur and pelvis
Types of movement: Flexion, extension, hyper extension, abduction, adduction, horizontal abduction and horizontal adduction
115
What type of joint is the elbow joint, and what are the articulating bones and types of movement?
Type: Hinge
Articulating bones: Femur and tibia
Types of movement: Flexion and extension
116
What type of joint is the ankle joint, and what are the articulating bones and types of movement?
Type: Hinge
Articulating bones: Talus, tibia and fibula
Types of movement: Plantar flexion and Dorsi flexion
117
Examples of movements in frontal plane and sagittal axis? (And what is it)
Cartwheel, jumping jacks, side stepping
Frontal plane: perpendicular to the ground and divides the body into front and back
Sagitta axis: runs horizontally through the body, from front to back
118
What is the medial line
The line through the middle of the body
119
What is abduction?
When a lateral movement action moves a limb away from the medial line.
120
What is adduction?
When a lateral movement action moves a limb closer toward the medial line.
121
Examples of movements in transverse plane and longitudinal axis? (And what is it)
Pirouette, axel spin in ice skating
(Runs across the performers body, splitting their top and bottom halves)
122
What is horizontal flexion?
Occurs when a performer moves their arms in toward each other, remaining parallel to the ground in the process
E.g. downwards/pull phase in press up
123
What is horizontal extension?
Occurs when the performer moves their arms away from them, remaining parallel to the ground
E.g. push phase in rowing
124
What is the synovial membrane?
This is the tissue that lines the inside of the joint capsule .
It removes wear and tear debris produced by joint movements and helps replenish synovial fluid - without it, quantity and quality of synovial fluid will reduce.
125
What is synovial fluid?
A fluid that lubricates joints, minimising friction and increases the range of painless movement.
The fluid contains nutrients that maintain the quality of articulating cartilage.
126
What is a joint capsule?
Fibrous tissue that surrounds the joint.
The synovial membrane attaches to it’s interior.
The capsule adds strength and protection to the joint.
127
What is the bursae?
A thin, flattened sac of synovial fluid.
Bursae’s sit in-between surfaces of tendons, ligaments and the joint capsule reducing the friction generated by them rubbing during movement.
128
What is the cartilage?
Smooth, fibrous tissue that covers the ends of the articulating bones and prevents them from rubbing.
It has spongy properties that assist in absorbing shock that travels through joints during movement.
129
What does a ligament do in detail?
The strand of thick fibrous tissue covers the ends of the articulating bones and prevents them rubbing.
It provides protection to the joint and ensures the articulating bones do not move unintentionally during movement and become damaged.
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What does a tendon do?
Connects muscle to bone
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What does a ligament do?
Connects bone to bone
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Why do muscles work in antagonistic pairs?
They can only pull
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What is the antagonist?
- The muscle that works in opposition to the agonist
- It lengthens and relaxes
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What is the agonist?
The muscle that is contracting and doing all the work
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How is venous return determined by a pressure gradient?
Increasing right atrial pressure decreases venous return and decreasing right atrial pressure increases venous return.
