2.Trait Psychology and Measuring Personality

Question 1

Q1: What is a personality trait?

Answer 1

A: A personality trait is a consistent pattern in the way individuals think, feel, and behave. Traits are relatively stable over time and across situations.

Question 2

Q2: What are the three fundamental assumptions of trait psychology?

Answer 2

A:

Consistency – Traits are consistent across time and situations.

Individual Differences – People differ in the degree to which they possess traits.

Trait Stability – Traits remain stable over time.

Question 3

Q3: What are the three approaches to identifying important traits?

Answer 3

A:

Lexical Approach – Important traits are encoded in language.

Statistical Approach – Uses factor analysis to identify traits.

Theoretical Approach – Relies on theory to determine which traits are important.

Question 4

Q4: What is the Lexical Hypothesis?

Answer 4

A: The idea that all important individual differences are encoded in natural language. Traits with more words and cross-cultural relevance are considered more important.

Question 5

Q5: What is factor analysis and how is it used in personality research?

Answer 5

A: Factor analysis is a statistical technique that identifies clusters of related items (traits). It helps researchers reduce a large number of traits into underlying dimensions or factors.

Question 6

Q6: Name the three major taxonomies of personality traits.

Answer 6

A:

Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor System (16PF)

The Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

Question 7

Q7: What are the three traits in Eysenck’s model?

Answer 7

A:

Extraversion–Introversion (E)

Neuroticism–Emotional Stability (N)

Psychoticism (P)

Question 8

Q8: How is Eysenck’s model structured hierarchically?

Answer 8

A:

Supertraits (PEN) at the top

Narrower traits beneath

Specific habits

Acts/behaviours at the bottom

Question 9

Q9: What is the Five-Factor Model (Big Five)?

Answer 9

A: A taxonomy of five broad trait dimensions:

Openness to Experience

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism
(OCEAN or CANOE)

Question 10

Q10: What evidence supports the Five-Factor Model?

Answer 10

A:

Consistent results across cultures

Found across different languages

Stable across age groups

Supported by both self-reports and observer ratings

Question 11

Q11: What are some criticisms of the Five-Factor Model?

Answer 11

A:

May not capture all important traits (e.g., honesty, religiosity)

Factor labels may be interpreted differently

The model describes but does not explain personality

Question 12

Q12: How does Cattell’s model differ from others?

Answer 12

A: Cattell identified 16 primary traits using factor analysis. His model is broader but considered less replicable than the Big Five.

Question 13

Q1: What are the three fundamental questions that guide trait psychology?

Answer 13

A1:

Which traits are most important?

How can traits be best measured?

What is the theoretical explanation for individual differences in traits?

Question 14

Q2: What is the stability assumption in trait psychology?

Answer 14

A2:
Traits are assumed to be relatively stable over time and across different situations, allowing them to predict future behaviour.

Question 15

Q3: What is the consistency assumption in trait psychology?

Answer 15

A3:
Traits are expected to manifest consistently across situations, meaning a person high on a trait (e.g., extraversion) should act that way in most settings.

Question 16

Q4: What are the major theoretical debates in trait psychology?

Answer 16

A4:

Person-situation interaction (is behaviour more influenced by traits or situations?)

Stability vs. change (can traits change significantly over time?)

Biological vs. environmental explanations

Question 17

Q5: What are the two types of trait stability?

Answer 17

A5:

Rank-order stability – maintaining relative trait positions compared to others.

Mean-level stability – the average level of a trait in a population stays the same over time.

Question 18

Q6: What is aggregation and why is it important in trait measurement?

Answer 18

A6:
Aggregation is the process of combining multiple behaviours or measurements to improve reliability and accuracy of trait scores.

Question 19

Q7: What is the difference between reliability and validity in trait measurement?

Answer 19

A7:

Reliability: Consistency of a measure (e.g., test-retest, internal consistency).

Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to (e.g., construct, predictive validity).

Question 20

Q8: What is the person-situation interaction?

Answer 20

A8:
It’s the idea that behaviour is a function of both the person (traits) and the situation, not one or the other alone (B = f(P × S)).

Question 21

Q9: What is situational specificity?

Answer 21

A9:
The concept that certain behaviours are elicited only in particular situations, challenging trait-based predictions.

Question 22

Q10: What are strong vs. weak situations in trait theory?

Answer 22

A10:

Strong situations: High social cues and norms (e.g., job interviews), suppress trait expression.

Weak situations: Fewer external constraints (e.g., parties), allow traits to show more.

Question 23

refers to how behaviour is influenced by the interaction between a person’s traits and the situation they’re in. Traits may predispose behaviour, but context shapes how or whether they are expresse

Answer 23

What does “person-situation interaction”

Question 24

How is behaviour best predicted, according to the interactionist perspective?

Answer 24

A: By considering both the individual’s traits and the specifics of the situation — not one in isolation.

Question 25

A situation with clear norms, rules, or expectations (e.g., courtroom, military drill). These minimise individual differences and suppress the visible effects of personality traits.

Answer 25

"strong situation"

Question 26

A situation with few social rules or constraints (e.g., casual gathering). In weak situations, personality traits have more opportunity to influence behaviour.

Answer 26

"weak situation"?

Question 27

The tendency for people to choose or avoid situations based on their personality traits. For example, extroverts may seek social settings, while introverts may avoid them.

Answer 27

situational selection

Question 28

The process by which individuals unintentionally elicit reactions from others based on their traits. For example, a dominant person may evoke submission or resistance in others.

Answer 28

evocation

Question 29

refers to the intentional use of tactics by individuals to influence or change the behaviour of others or the environment, often in ways consistent with their own personality traits.

Answer 29

Manipulation Example to help remember it: An extrovert might encourage group activities to create a more stimulating social setting, while someone high in conscientiousness might set rules or routines to increase order and productivity.

Question 30

Q: What is the most common method for measuring personality traits in trait psychology?

Answer 30

A: Self-report questionnaires.

Question 31

Q: What are some limitations of self-report questionnaires in trait psychology?

Answer 31

A: People may fake, respond carelessly, misinterpret items, or be unwilling to disclose accurate information.

Question 32

Q: What is an infrequency scale and how is it used?

Answer 32

A: It's a set of items designed to detect carelessness (e.g., “I never forget to breathe”). If a person endorses unlikely statements, their test may be flagged as invalid.

Question 33

Q: What is faking good vs. faking bad?

Answer 33

A: Faking good: Trying to appear more socially desirable or well-adjusted. Faking bad: Trying to appear more distressed or maladjusted, often for external gain.

Question 34

Q: What are false positives and false negatives in trait testing?

Answer 34

A: False positive: Someone who is faking is wrongly judged as truthful. False negative: Someone truthful is wrongly judged as faking

Question 35

Q: What is the main criticism of the MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)?

Answer 35

A: It lacks scientific reliability and validity, uses artificial types rather than trait dimensions, and has poor test-retest reliability.

Question 36

Q: Why is the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) considered a good example?

Answer 36

A: It’s based on the Big Five, shows strong reliability and validity, avoids adverse impact, and is widely validated in employment settings.

Question 37

Q: What are integrity tests and what are the two types?

Answer 37

A: Overt integrity tests: Ask directly about past dishonest behaviour. Covert integrity tests: Measure traits like conscientiousness and agreeableness that predict honest behaviour.

Question 38

Q: What is aggregation and why is it useful in trait measurement?

Answer 38

A: Aggregation involves averaging multiple observations to improve reliability and accuracy of trait assessment.

Question 39

Three main issues:

Answer 39

1. Carelessness 2. Faking On Questionnaires 3. Responses Sets

Question 40

A technique for detecting carelessness: Embed items that ask relatively obscure things into test – These are items that only relatively few people would ever answer yes to – E.g. “I flew over the Atlantic ocean 5 times last week” yes or no? is called

Answer 40

Infrequency scales

Question 41

A technique for detecting carelessness: – Include duplicate items spaced far apart in the survey – People should answer the same way for both – E.g. “I love going to parties” and then 15 items later “I hate going to parties” – Answer should be opposite for these to capture same trait/thought

Answer 41

Duplicate items

Question 42

Milan clinical Multiaxal inventory, 3rd edition are used to help detect

Answer 42

Faking these tests have indices of faking

Question 43

Thre Indices of faking are broken into 3 catagories:

Answer 43

DESIRABILITY INDEX - social desirability DISCLOSURE INDEX - open or transparent DEBASEMENT INDEX -tendancy to overreport on negative outcomes etc

Question 44

Degree to which the results may have been affected by client’s inclination to appear socially attractive, morally virtuous ----- Index

Answer 44

DESIRABILITY INDEX

Question 45

Whether client was inclined to be frank and self-revealing or reticent and secretive would be measured on the ------- index

Answer 45

DISCLOSURE INDEX

Question 46

Tendency to deprecate or devalue oneself by presenting more troublesome emotional and personal difficulties that are likely to uncovered upon objective review using the ------- index

Answer 46

DEBASEMENT INDEX

Question 47

3 catagories of Response Sets

Answer 47

Social Desirability Aquiencence Extreme responding

Question 48

Response set that involves the – Tendency to agree with items, regardless of content – Solution – develop items that require reverse scorin

Answer 48

Acquiescence

Question 49

Response set that involves – Tendency to give endpoint response

Answer 49

Extreme responding

Question 50

Response set that involves – Tendency to answer items in such a way so that one comes across as socially attractive or likable – Two ways of thinking about it: either – A distortion – should be eliminated or reduced – Or – Valid part of other desirable personality traits (e.g., agreeableness) and should be studied

Answer 50

Social Desirability

Question 51

A method to detect or avoid response set is using

Answer 51

Reverse scoring

Question 52

Detecting/avoiding response sets: Avoiding social desirability can be mediated by using ----------- responses

Answer 52

Forced-choice

Question 53

we can detect or avoid these issues, in the way that we

Answer 53

design and analyse self-report measures

Question 54

The study of continuities, consistencies, and changes in personality over time, including both stability and change in traits​

Answer 54

Personality development

Question 55

The maintenance of an individual's position within a group over time. For example, if someone who is dominant at age 14 is still more dominant than peers at age 20

Answer 55

rank order stability

Question 56

Consistency in the average level of a trait across time within a population. For example, if the average extraversion score of a group remains constant from age 20 to 40​

Answer 56

mean level stability

Question 57

Stability in the underlying trait, even if the behaviours expressing that trait change over time. E.g., childhood dominance (bossy play) might become adult dominance (taking charge in meetings

Answer 57

personality coherence

Question 58

What two conditions must be met for personality change to be considered development?

Answer 58

A: The change must be internal to the person. The change must be enduring over time (not temporary or situational)

Question 59

What are the three levels of analysis in personality development?

Answer 59

A: Population level – Trends that apply to nearly everyone. Group differences level – Differences between demographic groups (e.g., sex, culture). Individual differences level – Variations in personality change between individuals

Question 60

What is an example of a population-level personality change?

Answer 60

A: A general decrease in impulsivity as people age​

Question 61

Cheaper insurance premuiums based on older age is an example of using

Answer 61

population-level personality change

Question 62

What does temperament refer to in infancy studies?

Answer 62

Early-emerging individual differences, believed to be heritable and related to emotionality and arousability

Question 63

What did Mary Rothbart identify as six key infant temperament traits?

Answer 63

A: Activity level Smiling and laughter Fear Distress to limitations Soothability Duration of orienting

Question 64

What does the data suggest about temperament stability in infants?

Answer 64

A: Traits like activity and smiling show higher stability. Stability increases as infants mature. Shorter intervals show more stability than longer ones​