5: Personality, Relationships and Attachment Flashcards
(14 cards)
Personality
refers to the unique and enduring patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that define an individual and shape how they interact with the world. It is influenced by a combination of genetic predispositions, early life experiences, and environmental factors, making it a complex and dynamic aspect of human identity.
Different Theories of Personality
Psychodynamic Theory (Freud) – Suggests personality is shaped by unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and the interplay between the id, ego, and superego.
Trait Theory (e.g., Big Five Model) – Proposes that personality consists of stable traits such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Humanistic Theory (Maslow & Rogers) – Emphasises self-actualisation, personal growth, and the role of free will in shaping personality.
Social-Cognitive Theory (Bandura) – Highlights the influence of learning, social interactions, and cognitive processes on personality development.
Biological and Evolutionary Theories – Suggest personality traits have a genetic basis and have evolved to help individuals adapt to their environments.
What are Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are mental health conditions characterised by enduring patterns of maladaptive thinking, behaviour, and emotional responses that significantly impact an individual’s relationships and daily functioning. Examples include Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), and Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). These disorders often emerge in adolescence or early adulthood and can be influenced by genetic, environmental, and social factors.
The Contention Around Personality Theory
Personality theory remains a contentious area in psychology due to debates over the stability of personality traits, the influence of nature versus nurture, and the cultural biases embedded in different theoretical models. Critics argue that some theories, particularly trait-based approaches, oversimplify human behaviour and fail to account for situational variability. Additionally, the classification of personality disorders is controversial, with some questioning whether these conditions reflect genuine medical diagnoses or are socially constructed labels influenced by cultural and historical contexts.
What is Attachment?
Attachment refers to the deep and enduring emotional bonds that individuals form with significant others, particularly in early childhood. It plays a crucial role in emotional regulation, social development, and interpersonal relationships. Attachment is first established between infants and their primary caregivers and continues to shape how individuals relate to others throughout life. The quality of these early attachments influences a person’s ability to trust, regulate emotions, and navigate relationships.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
John Bowlby, a British psychologist, developed attachment theory in the mid-20th century. The Monotropic Theory of Attachment suggests that infants have an innate need to form a strong attachment to one primary caregiver, typically the mother. This bond serves as a secure base for exploration and is considered essential for emotional and social development. Bowlby argued that attachment must form within a critical period (first 2–3 years), or the child may face long-term emotional difficulties (maternal deprivation). He also introduced the internal working model, which shapes future relationships based on early attachment experiences. While influential, the theory has been criticised for overemphasising one primary attachment and downplaying multiple caregivers. Research by Schaffer and Emerson (1964) showed that infants form multiple strong attachments. Despite this, Bowlby’s work remains foundational in social work, early childhood education, and developmental psychology, highlighting the importance of consistent, responsive caregiving in early life.
Ainsworth’s Extension of Attachment Theory
Mary Ainsworth, a developmental psychologist, expanded on Bowlby’s work through her research, particularly the Strange Situation Experiment (1970). The Strange Situation Experiment is a psychological study designed to assess attachment styles in infants, typically aged 12 to 18 months. Conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, the experiment observes how young children respond to a series of separations and reunions with their primary caregiver. The procedure involves eight brief episodes, beginning with the parent and child entering a playroom, followed by the introduction of a stranger. The parent then leaves, leaving the child alone with the stranger, and later returns to comfort them. This sequence is repeated with variations, including a period where the child is left completely alone, before the parent returns for a final reunion. The Strange Situation Experiment was a landmark study in attachment theory, shaping our understanding of early relationships and their impact on emotional and social development. Its findings continue to inform research in child development, parenting, and social work, highlighting the importance of responsive and consistent caregiving in fostering secure attachment.
Ainsworth identified three primary attachment styles in infants:
Secure Attachment – Infants are distressed when the caregiver leaves but are comforted upon their return, indicating trust in their availability and responsiveness.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment – Infants show little distress upon separation and avoid the caregiver upon return, often suppressing their emotional needs due to past unresponsiveness.
Insecure-Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – Infants exhibit extreme distress when separated and are not easily comforted upon reunion, displaying anxiety and uncertainty about the caregiver’s reliability.
Later, researchers (Main & Solomon, 1986) identified a fourth style:
4. Disorganised Attachment – Infants display confused or contradictory behaviours, often due to inconsistent or frightening caregiving.
Contention Around Attachment Theory – The Historical Emphasis on Mothers
Attachment theory has been subject to criticism, particularly regarding its early emphasis on the mother as the primary attachment figure. Bowlby’s initial work, influenced by post-war societal norms, reinforced the idea that maternal care was the most critical determinant of a child’s emotional health. This perspective contributed to policies discouraging maternal employment and placing disproportionate responsibility on mothers for children’s wellbeing.
Critics argue that attachment theory underestimated the role of fathers, extended family, and broader social networks in child development. More recent research acknowledges that secure attachments can form with multiple caregivers, including fathers, grandparents, and educators. Additionally, some scholars highlight cultural biases in attachment research, as caregiving norms vary across societies. For example, in some cultures, communal caregiving is standard, challenging the Western-centric focus on a single primary attachment figure.
Despite these critiques, attachment theory remains influential in understanding relationships, mental health, and early childhood development. Contemporary research continues to refine the theory, considering cultural, social, and biological influences on attachment.
What Does Psychology Suggest About Early Attachments and Later Relationships?
According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), the quality of early bonds with caregivers forms the foundation for how individuals perceive relationships, trust others, and regulate emotions.
Securely attached individuals are more likely to develop healthy, trusting relationships in adulthood, displaying emotional availability and effective communication.
Insecurely attached individuals (avoidant or ambivalent) may struggle with intimacy, trust, or emotional regulation in relationships. Avoidant attachment is linked to emotional detachment, while ambivalent attachment may lead to anxiety and dependency in relationships.
Disorganised attachment (linked to early trauma or neglect) is often associated with difficulties in forming stable relationships and heightened vulnerability to mental health challenges.
Theories of Human Relationships
Attachment Theory (Bowlby, Ainsworth) – Emphasises early bonds with caregivers as a foundation for future relationships.
Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) – Suggests relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis, where individuals seek to maximise rewards and minimise costs in social interactions.
Equity Theory (Walster et al., 1978) – Proposes that relationships are most satisfying when both partners perceive fairness and balance in contributions.
Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg, 1986) – Identifies three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment, which combine in different ways to form different types of relationships.
Interdependence Theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) – Highlights how relationship satisfaction depends on mutual influence and the ability to meet each other’s needs.
Object Relations Theory (Klein, Winnicott, Kernberg) – Focuses on how early relationships with caregivers shape internal representations of others, influencing emotional development and future interpersonal relationships.
The Contention About Our Knowledge of Human Relationships
The Stability of Relationship Patterns – Some psychologists argue that early attachment styles remain relatively stable, while others suggest relationships evolve based on life experiences, therapy, or personal growth.
The Role of Biology vs. Environment – While some theories emphasise innate biological drives (e.g., evolutionary psychology), others focus on social and cultural influences in shaping relationships.
Cultural Biases in Relationship Research – Many relationship theories are based on Western, individualistic societies, potentially overlooking cultural variations in relationship norms, such as collectivist approaches to love, marriage, and caregiving.
Changing Social Norms – Modern societal shifts (e.g., digital communication, changing family structures, and diverse relationship models) challenge traditional theories and call for updated frameworks to reflect contemporary relationship dynamics.
The Stamford Prison Experiment
The Stanford Prison Experiment (1971), conducted by Philip Zimbardo, investigated the psychological effects of perceived power and authority. Participants were randomly assigned roles as either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment. The study was intended to last two weeks but was terminated after just six days due to the extreme and harmful behaviours exhibited by the participants, particularly the guards. While participants were selected for their normal psychological profiles, the experiment showed that social roles, authority, and environmental context could override individual personality traits, leading people to behave in ways that were unexpected and extreme.
