6: Executive Function, Self-Regulation and Agency Flashcards
(24 cards)
What is Executive Function?
Executive function (EF) refers to a set of cognitive processes that allow individuals to regulate their thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in order to achieve goals. These processes are primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex of the brain and are crucial for problem-solving, planning, decision-making, and self-regulation.
What Are the Components of Executive Function?
Executive function is typically broken down into three core components:
Working Memory – The ability to hold and manipulate information in mind over short periods. Example: Remembering a set of instructions while completing a task.
Inhibitory Control (Impulse Control) – The ability to resist impulses and distractions to stay focused on goals. Example: Refraining from blurting out answers in a classroom setting.
Cognitive Flexibility (Set-Shifting) – The ability to adapt to changing rules, perspectives, or environments. Example: Switching from one problem-solving strategy to another when the first one isn’t working.
These core components support higher-order executive functions, such as:
Planning & Organisation – Structuring tasks, setting goals, and creating strategies to achieve them.
Self-Monitoring & Metacognition – Reflecting on one’s performance and making adjustments.
Emotional Regulation – Managing emotional responses to maintain appropriate behavior.
Task Initiation & Goal-Directed Behavior – Starting tasks and maintaining motivation to complete them.
What Does Executive Functioning Allow Us to Do?
Executive functioning enables individuals to:
✔️ Plan and achieve goals
✔️ Solve problems efficiently
✔️ Regulate emotions and impulses
✔️ Focus attention and shift focus when needed
✔️ Adapt to new situations and challenges
✔️ Organise thoughts and actionsExecutive functioning enables individuals to:
✔️ Plan and achieve goals
✔️ Solve problems efficiently
✔️ Regulate emotions and impulses
✔️ Focus attention and shift focus when needed
✔️ Adapt to new situations and challenges
✔️ Organise thoughts and actions
What Does Executive Functioning NOT Allow Us to Do?
Executive functioning does not:
❌ Automatically develop without practice and experience (it develops gradually, peaking in early adulthood)
❌ Guarantee perfect decision-making or emotional control
❌ Function well under high stress, trauma, or fatigue (stress and mental health issues can impair EF)
❌ Replace basic cognitive skills like intelligence (EF is about how we use our abilities, not the abilities themselves)
Key Theories of Executive Functioning
Miyake & Friedman’s Model (2000, 2012)
Identifies three core components: working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility.
Emphasises the unity and diversity of executive functions—some processes are related, but they can also operate independently.
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model (1986, 2000)
Proposes that working memory consists of multiple systems: a central executive (control system) and two subsystems (phonological loop for verbal info and visuospatial sketchpad for visual-spatial info).
Suggests that working memory is a fundamental part of executive function.
Zelazo’s Developmental Theory of EF (2003)
Proposes that executive function develops in stages across childhood.
Suggests that EF is linked to conscious reflection and decision-making.
Diamond’s Neurodevelopmental Model (2013)
Links EF development to brain maturation, particularly in the prefrontal cortex.
Highlights the impact of stress, sleep, and physical activity on EF.
Norman & Shallice’s Supervisory Attentional System (1986)
Proposes that executive function is needed for novel, complex, or high-demand tasks, while routine behaviors rely on automatic processes.
Key Stages of Executive Function Development
Infancy & Early Childhood (0-5 years)
Emerging executive functions: Infants and toddlers show the early foundations of EF, such as simple working memory (e.g., remembering where a toy is hidden) and basic impulse control (e.g., waiting briefly for a desired object).
Rapid growth: Between ages 3-5, EF skills like inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility improve significantly, but they remain fragile and inconsistent.
Play as a developmental tool: Pretend play and structured activities (e.g., games with rules) help strengthen EF skills
Key Stages of Executive Function Development
Middle Childhood (6-12 years)
Greater self-regulation: Children improve in planning, problem-solving, and controlling emotions, but they still struggle with long-term goal-setting.
Increased cognitive flexibility: They become better at switching between tasks and perspectives (e.g., understanding multiple viewpoints in social situations).
School demands and EF growth: Formal education supports EF through structured learning, time management, and following multi-step instructions.
Key Stages of Executive Function Development
Adolescence (13-18 years)
Major EF improvements: Working memory, planning, and emotional regulation become more sophisticated.
Risk-taking vs. EF growth: The limbic system (responsible for emotions and reward-seeking) develops faster than the prefrontal cortex, leading to impulsivity and risk-taking behaviours.
Greater independence: Teens rely more on their EF skills for decision-making but still need guidance and scaffolding.
Key Stages of Executive Function Development
Early Adulthood (18-25 years)
Peak EF maturation: Executive function skills fully mature, particularly in complex decision-making, long-term planning, and emotional regulation.
Stability and refinement: While EF skills are now highly developed, they can still be affected by stress, sleep deprivation, or mental health issues.
Factors That Influence Executive Function Development
Biological & Neurological Factors
EF development is tied to prefrontal cortex maturation and neural connections between different brain regions.
Genetic factors contribute to EF abilities, but environmental influences play a major role.
Environmental & Social Influences
Responsive caregiving (e.g., warm, structured interactions) supports EF growth.
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) (e.g., trauma, neglect) can impair EF development.
Play-based learning and structured routines help strengthen EF in young children.
Education & Cognitive Stimulation
Exposure to structured learning, problem-solving tasks, and self-directed activities enhances EF.
Teaching metacognition (thinking about one’s thinking) supports EF development.
Physical Health & Well-Being
Good sleep, physical activity, and nutrition positively impact EF.
Chronic stress and mental health issues can impair EF skills.
Executive Function and Neurodivergence
Neurodivergence, particularly in conditions like ADHD and autism, is closely linked to differences in executive functioning (EF). In ADHD, EF challenges often include difficulty with impulse control, working memory, task initiation, and sustained attention, making it harder to manage time, follow multi-step instructions, or regulate emotions effectively. The prefrontal cortex, which governs EF, develops more slowly in individuals with ADHD, contributing to these difficulties. In autism, EF differences can manifest as rigidity in thinking, challenges with cognitive flexibility, and difficulties in planning and organising tasks. While some autistic individuals may excel in specific EF domains (e.g., detail-oriented problem-solving), they may struggle with adapting to change or shifting between tasks. Both ADHD and autism are neurodevelopmental differences, not deficits, meaning that EF challenges should be understood in the context of diverse cognitive strengths rather than as inherent impairments. Supportive environments, structured routines, and individualised strategies (e.g., external reminders, visual supports, and strengths-based approaches) can help neurodivergent individuals navigate EF-related challenges and thrive in their personal and professional lives.
What is Self-Regulation?
Self-regulation is the ability to manage emotions, thoughts, and behaviours in response to internal and external demands. It involves monitoring and adjusting one’s actions, impulses, and emotional responses to achieve goals and function adaptively in different contexts. Self-regulation allows individuals to stay focused, persist through challenges, and respond flexibly rather than react impulsively.
What Executive Functioning Skills Are Needed for Self-Regulation?
Inhibitory Control – The ability to resist impulses and distractions (e.g., waiting patiently rather than interrupting).
Working Memory – Holding and using information to guide behaviour (e.g., remembering social rules in a conversation).
Cognitive Flexibility – Adapting to new information, shifting perspectives, and problem-solving in dynamic situations (e.g., adjusting emotions when plans change).
Self-Monitoring & Metacognition – Reflecting on one’s actions and emotions to make adjustments (e.g., recognising frustration and using a coping strategy).
What Other Skills or Brain Components Are Also Needed?
Self-regulation is not just an EF process—it also involves other cognitive, emotional, and physiological systems, including:
Prefrontal Cortex – The brain’s “control centre,” responsible for planning, impulse control, and decision-making.
Limbic System (Amygdala & Hippocampus) – Regulates emotions and memory; overactivation (e.g., in stress) can impair self-regulation.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Governs physiological responses to stress; self-regulation requires a balanced sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) system.
Interoception – Awareness of internal bodily states (e.g., recognising hunger or anxiety) supports emotional self-regulation.
Is Self-Regulation Achievable for Humans?
While self-regulation is possible, neuroscience suggests that humans are not wired to self-regulate in isolation—we develop and sustain self-regulation through co-regulation with others.
Co-Regulation & Neuroscience
Co-regulation refers to the process of regulating emotions and behaviours through supportive relationships. It is particularly crucial in childhood, where caregivers help scaffold self-regulation by offering warmth, guidance, and modelling emotional regulation strategies. Neuroscience research highlights the role of mirror neurons, oxytocin, and autonomic nervous system synchronisation in co-regulation, demonstrating that human nervous systems are designed to regulate in connection with others.
Even in adulthood, co-regulation remains essential—social support, therapeutic relationships, and community connections all contribute to maintaining emotional balance. This challenges the traditional notion that self-regulation is solely an individual skill and instead suggests that regulation is a dynamic, relational process that continues across the lifespan.
Should We Aim to Develop Self-Regulation in Children, Adolescents, and Adults, or Something Else?
While fostering self-regulation is important, a more holistic approach would focus on both self-regulation and co-regulation. Instead of expecting children and adults to self-regulate in isolation, we should:
Support co-regulation in early development – Caregivers, educators, and peers play a crucial role in modelling and reinforcing self-regulation strategies.
Recognise that self-regulation is not always possible – During stress, trauma, or neurodevelopmental differences (e.g., ADHD, autism), external support is often needed.
Promote social and systemic supports – Policies and practices in education, workplaces, and communities should foster environments where co-regulation is accessible.
Ultimately, self-regulation is best developed in relational and supportive contexts, making co-regulation a key foundation for lifelong well-being and resilience.
Self-Regulation and Neurodivergence
Self-regulation can be particularly challenging for neurodivergent individuals, especially those with ADHD and autism, due to differences in executive functioning, sensory processing, and emotional regulation. People with ADHD often struggle with impulse control, sustained attention, and emotional regulation, making it harder to manage frustration, transitions, or delayed gratification. Autistic individuals may experience intense emotions, difficulties with cognitive flexibility, and sensory sensitivities, which can impact their ability to self-regulate in unpredictable environments. Traditional self-regulation strategies often assume a neurotypical model of behaviour, which can be ineffective or even harmful for neurodivergent individuals. Neuroaffirming practice acknowledges that self-regulation is not just an individual responsibility but a relational and environmental process. Instead of expecting neurodivergent people to conform to neurotypical expectations, neuroaffirming approaches focus on reducing environmental stressors, providing sensory accommodations, and using co-regulation strategies to support self-regulation in a way that respects neurodivergent needs. This might include movement breaks, alternative communication methods, sensory-friendly spaces, and the validation of stimming as a self-regulation tool. By shifting the focus from compliance to collaboration and support, neuroaffirming practice fosters self-regulation in a way that is both effective and respectful of neurodivergent experiences.
Self-Regulation and Trauma / Adverse Childhood Experiences:
Self-regulation is significantly impacted by trauma and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), as prolonged exposure to stress, neglect, or adversity can alter brain development and disrupt emotional, behavioural, and physiological regulation. Trauma affects the autonomic nervous system and limbic system, often leaving individuals in a heightened state of fight, flight, freeze, or fawn responses, making self-regulation difficult. Children and adults with trauma histories may struggle with impulse control, emotional outbursts, dissociation, or difficulty recognising and responding to their own needs. Traditional behaviour-based approaches to self-regulation often fail to consider the underlying neurobiological impact of trauma, leading to misinterpretations of trauma responses as defiance or non-compliance. Trauma-informed practice shifts the focus from “what’s wrong with you?” to “what happened to you?”, recognising that self-regulation is not just a skill to be taught but a capacity that is shaped by relationships, safety, and supportive environments. Trauma-informed approaches emphasise co-regulation, predictable routines, sensory and emotional safety, and relational support to help individuals rebuild self-regulation capacities in a way that is compassionate, healing, and responsive to their lived experiences.
What is Agency?
Agency refers to an individual’s capacity to make choices, take intentional actions, and influence their own life and environment. It is the ability to act with autonomy and purpose, rather than being purely reactive or externally controlled. Agency is shaped by both internal factors (e.g., cognitive abilities, emotions, motivation) and external conditions (e.g., social structures, relationships, access to resources).
How Is Agency Connected to Executive Functioning and Self-Regulation?
Agency is heavily reliant on executive functioning (EF) and self-regulation, as both enable individuals to make decisions, control impulses, plan actions, and persist through challenges. Key EF skills that support agency include:
Cognitive Flexibility – The ability to adapt to new situations and consider multiple perspectives.
Working Memory – Holding and manipulating information to guide decision-making.
Inhibitory Control – Resisting distractions and impulses to act in alignment with goals.
Planning & Problem-Solving – Structuring actions toward long-term goals.
Beyond EF, other brain components also contribute to agency:
Prefrontal Cortex – Governs decision-making, impulse control, and goal-setting.
Limbic System (Amygdala & Hippocampus) – Regulates emotional responses and memory, influencing motivation and risk assessment.
Dopaminergic System – Supports reward-based learning and motivation, helping to sustain goal-directed behaviour.
Interoceptive Networks – Awareness of bodily states plays a role in decision-making and emotional regulation.
Agency is not just about cognitive ability—it also requires a supportive environment, relational connections, and access to opportunities that allow individuals to act on their intentions.
How Does Agency Develop Across the Lifespan?
Agency is a developmental process that evolves through different life stages:
Infancy & Early Childhood – Agency begins with sensorimotor exploration and grows through secure attachment and co-regulation. Caregivers scaffold early agency by responding to needs and encouraging exploration.
Middle Childhood & Adolescence – Developing executive functioning, problem-solving, and self-advocacy supports growing autonomy. Supportive relationships help young people balance independence with guidance.
Adulthood – Agency is expressed through self-directed decision-making, goal-setting, and social participation. Systemic factors (e.g., economic stability, education, discrimination) shape an individual’s capacity to exercise agency.
Older Adulthood – Agency may be challenged by health changes or social limitations, but maintaining autonomy, self-efficacy, and adaptive strategies remains essential for well-being.
Agency is not fixed—it can expand or contract depending on life experiences, environments, and available supports.
What Does Agency Look Like in Practice?
Agency is expressed in daily life through decision-making, problem-solving, and autonomy. In practice, this may include:
Personal Choices – Choosing what to eat, how to spend time, or setting life goals.
Self-Advocacy – Asking for accommodations, setting boundaries, or challenging injustices.
Emotional & Behavioural Regulation – Managing emotions and actions in ways that align with personal values and goals.
Social Participation – Engaging in relationships, communities, and civic life in meaningful ways.
Agency does not always mean complete independence—it can also involve seeking support, collaborating with others, and adapting to circumstances while maintaining a sense of self-direction.
How Might Neurodivergence and Trauma Affect the Expression of Agency?
🔹 ADHD & Agency – Executive functioning challenges (e.g., impulsivity, time management difficulties) may make it harder to plan and follow through on intentions, but strengths in creativity and divergent thinking can foster innovative forms of agency.
🔹 Autism & Agency – Differences in cognitive flexibility, sensory processing, and social communication may influence how agency is expressed. Traditional societal expectations may limit autonomy, but neuroaffirming practices (e.g., supporting communication preferences, reducing sensory stressors) can create conditions where agency can flourish.
🔹 Trauma & Agency – Adverse experiences may disrupt self-regulation and executive functioning, making agency harder to access. Trauma-informed approaches help restore agency by prioritising safety, choice, and relational support.
A neuroaffirming approach to agency recognises that agency is not about fitting into neurotypical norms but about creating environments that support autonomy, self-expression, and accessible pathways to decision-making. By valuing different ways of thinking, learning, and acting, we can move toward a more inclusive understanding of agency that empowers all individuals to act on their strengths and aspirations.
