7: Adolescence Flashcards
(15 cards)
Introduction to Adolescence
Adolescence is a distinct and transformative stage of human development that begins with the onset of puberty and continues into early adulthood. It is commonly associated with hormonal changes and physical maturation, but it is also profoundly shaped by social, cultural, psychological, and political influences.
Early theorists such as G. Stanley Hall characterised adolescence as a time of “storm and stress,” highlighting emotional turmoil and conflict. In contrast, contemporary perspectives increasingly view adolescence as a period of opportunity for identity exploration, personal growth, and increased social engagement.
Theories of Adolescent Development
The study of adolescent development has been shaped by both foundational and contemporary theories. Early psychological models focused on universal, stage-based growth. Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory identified adolescence as the stage when formal operational thinking emerges, allowing for abstract reasoning and problem-solving. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory highlighted adolescence as a key stage in identity development, defined by the conflict between identity and role confusion. Sigmund Freud offered a contrasting psychodynamic view, seeing adolescence as a time when earlier psychosexual conflicts resurface, particularly as the libido is reactivated.
Contemporary frameworks
While these grand theories provided valuable insights, they were often limited in scope, failing to account for individual and cultural variation. Contemporary frameworks offer a more holistic and dynamic understanding. Developmental Systems Theory highlights the reciprocal interactions between individuals and their environments, while Positive Youth Development (PYD) shifts the focus from deficits to strengths, viewing adolescents as capable and resourceful. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory further advances this approach by describing the multiple, nested systems—such as family, school, and society—that shape development. These modern theories promote a “person-in-context” perspective, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration and recognising the importance of diversity, context, and structural influences in adolescent development.
Puberty and Biological Change
Puberty marks the biological beginning of adolescence and is initiated by hormonal changes involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This process leads to sexual maturation, the development of secondary sex characteristics, and rapid physical growth. While these biological changes are universal, the timing of puberty varies widely across individuals and can significantly impact psychosocial outcomes. For example, early-maturing girls may be more vulnerable to anxiety, depression, and negative peer experiences, while early-maturing boys may experience social advantages but also face increased behavioural expectations.
Alongside physical changes, adolescence involves significant brain development. The prefrontal cortex—responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and planning—continues to mature into the mid-20s. Meanwhile, the limbic system, associated with emotion and reward, develops earlier. This imbalance contributes to increased emotional reactivity and risk-taking behaviours. Adolescents also experience shifts in their circadian rhythms, making them biologically inclined to stay up later and wake later. However, societal expectations such as early school start times often conflict with these changes, leading to chronic sleep deprivation and its associated impacts on mood, cognition, and learning. Recognising these biological factors can help inform developmentally appropriate policies and practices in education and health.
operational thinking, a concept introduced by Piaget.
Cognitive development in adolescence is marked by the emergence of formal operational thinking, a concept introduced by Piaget. This stage enables adolescents to engage in abstract reasoning, consider hypothetical scenarios, and reflect on their own thought processes—a skill known as metacognition. These cognitive advances support more complex moral reasoning, future planning, and identity exploration. Adolescents begin to think critically about social norms, challenge authority, and form independent beliefs.
Executive functions
such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control—also develop during adolescence. However, because these functions are still maturing and do not yet match the speed of emotional reactivity driven by the limbic system, adolescents are more likely to act impulsively or make emotionally charged decisions. Emotional development during this period involves learning to understand and regulate a wide range of feelings. While often viewed negatively, risk-taking can serve a positive developmental role, promoting autonomy, resilience, and personal growth. Understanding how cognitive, emotional, and social factors interact enables practitioners to better support adolescents in developing self-regulation and making healthy choices.
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Identity development is a central psychological task of adolescence. According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, adolescence is characterised by the conflict between identity and role confusion. During this stage, young people explore different values, beliefs, roles, and relationships in an effort to form a coherent sense of self. This process can be messy and uncertain but is critical to establishing a stable identity that supports adult functioning.
James Marcia expanded on Erikson’s theory by identifying four identity statuses
identity diffusion (no commitment or exploration), foreclosure (commitment without exploration), moratorium (exploration without commitment), and identity achievement (both commitment and exploration). These statuses reflect the varied pathways adolescents may take in constructing their identities. Identity is not singular; it encompasses dimensions such as cultural background, gender, sexuality, and social roles. For marginalised adolescents, navigating multiple intersecting identities can be particularly complex. A positive, affirmed identity is linked to resilience, mental health, and a strong sense of belonging, making identity development a vital area for support in both education and social services.
Family Systems and Parenting in Adolescence
Although adolescents seek greater independence, families remain a key influence on their development. As family dynamics shift during this time, adolescents rely on caregivers for emotional support, boundaries, and guidance. Diana Baumrind’s typology of parenting styles—authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved—provides a useful framework for understanding how parenting approaches affect adolescent behaviour. Research consistently shows that authoritative parenting, which combines warmth with clear expectations, is associated with positive outcomes such as high self-esteem, academic success, and social competence.
Peer Relationships and Social Belonging
Peer relationships become increasingly important during adolescence as young people develop independence from their families. Friendships offer emotional support, opportunities for empathy, and spaces for identity exploration. Peers influence a wide range of behaviours, from interests and appearance to attitudes and values, shaping adolescents’ sense of self and belonging.
Peer pressure is often seen as a negative force, but it can also encourage positive behaviours, such as academic effort and community involvement. Social learning theory helps explain how adolescents adopt behaviours by observing and modelling their peers. However, peer dynamics can also involve challenges such as bullying, exclusion, and victimisation, which negatively impact mental health and academic engagement. Understanding the dual nature of peer influence enables adults to support adolescents in building healthy relationships and making independent, informed decisions.
Mental Health and Wellbeing in Adolescence
Adolescence is a peak period for the onset of mental health conditions due to the combined pressures of biological changes, social transitions, and identity formation. Common concerns during this stage include anxiety, depression, eating disorders, self-harm, and suicidal ideation. These issues should be understood developmentally, recognising the interplay between brain development, hormonal shifts, peer relationships, and environmental stressors.
Corey Keyes’ dual-factor model
reframes mental health as more than the absence of illness. It introduces a continuum from languishing (low wellbeing) to flourishing (high wellbeing), encouraging a proactive approach to mental health promotion. Flourishing is characterised by emotional vitality, life satisfaction, and positive functioning. Strengths-based strategies that promote protective factors—such as self-esteem, belonging, and opportunities for meaningful participation—help build resilience. Schools and communities are essential in creating environments that support mental health. Trauma-informed and culturally responsive practices are especially important for addressing the needs of diverse adolescent populations.
Resilience
Resilience refers to the ability to adapt positively in the face of adversity, and it is not a fixed trait but a dynamic process shaped by internal and external resources. Protective factors—such as supportive relationships, emotional regulation skills, a positive self-concept, and access to community resources—play a crucial role in fostering resilience. Research by Werner and Smith, among others, shows that even in high-risk environments, many adolescents thrive when given opportunities and support. Strengths-based and trauma-informed approaches can help practitioners empower adolescents to develop resilience and reduce the likelihood or impact of risk behaviours.
Emerging Adulthood
Emerging adulthood is a developmental stage proposed by Jeffrey Arnett that describes the period from approximately 18 to 25 years of age. It reflects social and economic changes that have delayed traditional transitions to adulthood, such as completing education, entering full-time employment, and starting a family. Emerging adulthood is characterised by exploration, instability, and self-focus, as young people navigate shifting identities and pursue greater independence.
This life stage is distinct from adolescence in that individuals have often achieved biological maturity and legal adult status but may not yet have assumed full adult roles. It offers opportunities for identity exploration in love, work, and worldviews, but it can also be marked by uncertainty, stress, and vulnerability—especially for those without stable support systems. Understanding emerging adulthood helps practitioners and educators tailor services to meet the unique developmental needs of young people in this transitional phase, ensuring they are supported in building meaningful, autonomous adult lives.
