5.3-5.5 flashcards

Question 1

Dysfunction

Answer 1

an impairment or disturbance in an individual’s behavior, thinking, or emotional regulation that reflects a breakdown in their psychological, biological, or developmental processes.

Question 2

distress

Answer 2

stress that is perceived as negative and harmful, leading to debilitating effects. It’s the opposite of eustress

Question 3

deviation from social norm

Answer 3

behavior or thinking that significantly differs from what is considered typical or acceptable within a particular culture or group

Question 4

Diagnosis (consequences: cultural/societal norms, stigma, racism, ageism, sexism, discrimination)

Answer 4

the process of identifying and understanding the nature of a psychological disorder by examining a person’s symptoms, reviewing relevant records, and potentially using psychological tests

Question 5

Stigma

Answer 5

the negative social attitude and beliefs associated with a particular characteristic or condition of an individual, often perceived as a deficiency or undesirable trait

Question 6

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM)

Answer 6

a manual published by the American Psychiatric Association that is used to classify and diagnose mental disorders

Question 7

international classification of mental disorders (ICD)

Answer 7

refers to the World Health Organization’s (WHO) standardized system for classifying all diseases, including mental disorders.

Question 8

Eclectic approach

Answer 8

a flexible method where therapists combine techniques and principles from various psychological perspectives to best address a client’s unique needs

Question 9

behavioral perspective on mental disorders

Answer 9

posits that abnormal behaviors are learned through classical, operant, and observational conditioning. It emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli and learned associations in shaping these behaviors.
Classical Conditioning:
Mental disorders can be explained by learned associations between stimuli and responses. For example, a phobia might develop due to associating a neutral stimulus (like a dog) with a negative experience (being bitten).
Operant Conditioning:
Mental disorders can also result from learned behaviors based on consequences. For example, someone might develop a fear of public speaking because they experienced negative reactions in the past, leading them to avoid situations that trigger public speaking.
Observational Learning:
Mental disorders can be learned through observing others. For example, a child might develop an unhealthy eating pattern by observing a parent or family member struggling with eating disorders.
Maladaptive Learned Associations:
The behavioral perspective focuses on how mental disorders can arise from maladaptive associations between stimuli and responses.
Focus on Observable Behavior:
The behavioral perspective emphasizes observable behaviors and avoids speculation about internal mental processes.
Treatment:
The behavioral perspective suggests that mental disorders can be treated by modifying learned associations and behaviors

Question 10

psychodynamic perspective on mental disorders

Answer 10

views mental disorders as stemming from unconscious internal conflicts and early childhood experiences. It emphasizes the impact of unconscious drives and unresolved conflicts on personality and behavior.
Elaboration:
Unconscious Forces:
The psychodynamic perspective posits that a significant portion of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are driven by unconscious motivations and conflicts, rather than conscious awareness.
Early Childhood:
It emphasizes the role of early childhood experiences, particularly those involving relationships with caregivers, in shaping personality and influencing the development of mental disorders.
Internal Conflicts:
Psychodynamic theory suggests that mental disorders can arise from unresolved internal conflicts, such as those between the id, ego, and superego (Freud’s model of personality).
Defense Mechanisms:
The psychodynamic perspective also emphasizes the use of defense mechanisms, which are unconscious strategies individuals employ to cope with anxiety and internal conflicts.
Examples of Mental Disorders:
From a psychodynamic perspective, anxiety disorders, depression, and personality disorders can be understood as stemming from unconscious conflicts, unresolved traumas, or maladaptive defense mechanisms.
Therapeutic Approach:
Psychodynamic therapy often involves exploring past experiences and unconscious conflicts through techniques like free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of symbolic meanings.

Question 11

humanistic perspective on mental disorders

Answer 11

mental disorders arise from an individual’s failure to reach their full potential and fulfill their inherent need for self-actualization.
Self-Actualization:
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The humanistic perspective emphasizes the innate drive to achieve one’s full potential and become the best version of oneself.
Free Will:
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Individuals have the ability to make choices and shape their own lives, rather than being solely determined by external forces or unconscious processes.
Holistic Approach:
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Humanistic psychology considers the whole person, including their thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and experiences, rather than focusing solely on symptoms or behaviors.
Unconditional Positive Regard:
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Humanistic therapy emphasizes acceptance and support of the individual, regardless of their behavior or thoughts.
In contrast to other perspectives:
Psychodynamic:
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While also acknowledging the importance of the individual, humanistic psychology differs by not focusing on unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences as the primary drivers of behavior.
Behavioral:
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Unlike behavioral approaches, humanistic psychology does not primarily focus on learning and conditioning as the source of mental disorders.
Cognitive:
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Humanistic psychology emphasizes subjective experience and free will, while cognitive approaches focus on thought patterns and processing as the root of mental disorders.
Examples:
An individual struggling with anxiety might be viewed as having an unmet need for self-esteem and a lack of self-efficacy, rather than being driven by unconscious desires or maladaptive thought patterns.
A therapist might encourage an individual to explore their values, identify their goals, and take steps toward self-actualization, rather than focusing on past experiences or cognitive distortions.

Question 12

cognitive perspective on mental disorders

Answer 12

posits that these disorders stem from maladaptive thought patterns, distorted beliefs, and irrational thinking, which lead to emotional distress and unhealthy behaviors
Focus on Thought:
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The cognitive perspective in AP Psychology emphasizes that mental disorders are often linked to unhealthy or maladaptive ways of thinking.
Maladaptive Thinking:
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This can include distorted beliefs, negative or irrational thought patterns, and unrealistic expectations about oneself or the world.
Impact on Behavior:
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These thought patterns can lead to emotional distress and can contribute to the development of various mental health conditions.
Importance of Understanding Internal Processes:
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A key aspect of the cognitive perspective is the belief that to understand an individual’s behavior, one must first understand how they are processing information, interpreting situations, and making decisions.
Connection to Other Perspectives:
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The cognitive perspective often complements other perspectives, such as the behavioral perspective, by acknowledging the role of internal thought processes in shaping behavior.

Question 13

sociocultural perspective on mental disorders

Answer 13

emphasizes how societal and cultural factors influence the development and treatment of mental illnesses.
Emphasis on Social and Cultural Influences:
This perspective recognizes that societal norms, cultural beliefs, and social interactions play a significant role in shaping an individual’s behavior and mental health.
Cultural Competence:
Mental health professionals need to understand and address issues of race, culture, and ethnicity, as Eurocentric therapies may not be effective for all populations.
Examples:
A Hispanic male struggling with depression and his internal conflict with his religious beliefs and sexual orientation, or a Chinese client with a collectivist approach to problem-solving, illustrates the impact of cultural factors on mental health and treatment.
Broader Perspective:
The sociocultural perspective considers a wide range of social factors, including race, ethnicity, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation, all of which can influence mental health.
Importance in Treatment:
This perspective emphasizes the need for comprehensive treatment that addresses the biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors contributing to a disorder.
In essence, the sociocultural perspective recognizes that mental health is not just an individual issue but is also deeply intertwined with social and cultural contexts.

Question 14

biological perspective on mental disorders

Answer 14

views mental disorders as arising from biological factors like genetics, brain structure, and chemical imbalances.
Focus on Biological Processes:
The biological perspective emphasizes the role of biological processes, including the nervous system, brain chemistry, and genetic inheritance, in shaping behavior and mental processes.
Neurotransmitters, Hormones, and Brain Structure:
This perspective explores how neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain structure and function can impact behavior and contribute to the development of mental disorders.
Genetic Factors:
The biological perspective recognizes that genes can influence personality traits, cognitive abilities, and susceptibility to mental disorders.
Evolutionary Psychology:
It also considers how natural selection has shaped certain psychological traits and behaviors over time.
Examples:
For example, a psychologist using the biological perspective might explain an individual’s introverted behavior as a result of their genetic makeup and the subsequent effect on neurotransmitters in their brain.
Treatment Approaches:
Treatment approaches within the biological perspective often involve medication or therapies that aim to modify brain chemistry or function, such as using antidepressants, mood stabilizers, or antipsychotics

Question 15

biopsychosocial model (interaction model)

Answer 15

a holistic approach to understanding human behavior and health that emphasizes the interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors
Biological factors:
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These include genetic predispositions, physical health, brain chemistry, and physiological processes.
Psychological factors:
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This encompasses thoughts, emotions, behaviors, cognitive processes, and personality traits.
Social factors:
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This includes social relationships, culture, socioeconomic status, and environmental influences.
Key aspects of the biopsychosocial model:
Holistic perspective:
It recognizes that human experiences are complex and multifaceted, requiring a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors.
Interaction and influence:
It emphasizes that these factors are not isolated but rather interact and influence each other.
Multidimensional understanding:
It provides a framework for examining the multidimensional nature of human experiences related to health, well-being, and behavior.
Personalized care:
It helps tailor interventions and treatments to the unique biopsychosocial context of each individual.
Understanding complex issues:
It helps explain why individuals with the same diagnosis may experience and respond to treatment differently.
Examples of the biopsychosocial model in action:
Chronic pain:
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A patient’s chronic pain may be influenced by biological factors like nerve damage, psychological factors like anxiety or depression, and social factors like lack of support.
Mental health disorders:
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Mental health conditions like depression may be influenced by genetic predispositions (biological), negative thought patterns (psychological), and stressful life events (social).
Adolescent antisocial behavior:
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Antisocial behavior can be understood through the lens of biological factors like brain differences, psychological factors like impulsivity, and social factors like peer influence.
In essence, the biopsychosocial model provides a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of human health and behavior compared to solely focusing on one aspect (like biological or psychological). According to Fiveable, the model highlights that all three factors are interconnected and influence each other, leading to a more holistic approach to understanding and addressing complex issues.

Question 16

diathesis-stress model interaction model)

Answer 16

explains how mental health conditions develop through the interaction between a person’s genetic predisposition (diathesis) and environmental stressors. It suggests that individuals with a genetic vulnerability to a disorder may only develop it when exposed to specific environmental stressors.
Diathesis:
This refers to an individual’s inherent predisposition or vulnerability to a particular disorder, often linked to genetic factors. It’s the “seed” of the disorder, the underlying vulnerability.
Stress:
This encompasses environmental factors, such as stressful life events, trauma, or other external influences, that can trigger or exacerbate a disorder.
Interaction:
The diathesis-stress model emphasizes that the development of a disorder is not solely due to one factor but rather the interplay between an individual’s vulnerability and their exposure to stressors.
How it Works:
The model suggests that individuals with a higher diathesis (greater genetic vulnerability) may be more susceptible to developing a disorder when exposed to stressors, even if the stressors are relatively mild. Conversely, individuals with a lower diathesis may experience more significant stressors before developing a disorder.
Examples:
A person with a family history of schizophrenia (diathesis) may develop schizophrenia if they experience a stressful event like losing their job.
An individual with a genetic vulnerability to depression (diathesis) may develop depression after experiencing a significant loss.
The onset of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) may be triggered by the stress of a pandemic in someone with a pre-existing tendency towards germ aversion.

Question 17

neurodevelopmental disorders

Answer 17

conditions that arise during early childhood and persist into adulthood, impacting a person’s ability to function in personal, social, academic, and occupational settings. These disorders stem from abnormalities in brain and nervous system development, leading to deficits in areas like cognition, communication, behavior, and motor skills.
arly Onset:
Neurodevelopmental disorders typically emerge during the developmental period, meaning before or in early childhood.
Persistent Impact:
While symptoms may change over time, the underlying developmental deficits continue to affect a person’s functioning throughout their life.
Functional Impairments:
These disorders lead to difficulties in areas like:
Cognition: Intellectual disability, learning difficulties.
Communication: Communication disorders.
Social Interaction: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Attention and Behavior: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Motor Skills: Motor disorders.
Examples of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (according to the DSM-5):
Intellectual Developmental Disorder: Formerly known as intellectual disability, characterized by deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.
Communication Disorders: Problems with language production, language comprehension, and/or speech.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Characterized by deficits in social communication and social interaction, along with repetitive behaviors or interests.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Difficulties with attention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity.
Motor Disorders: Disorders affecting motor skills, such as developmental coordination disorder.
Specific Learning Disorder: Difficulties in specific academic areas like reading, writing, or math.
Important Considerations:
Overlap in Symptoms:
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Many neurodevelopmental disorders share some symptoms, making diagnosis complex.
Vulnerability to Mental Health Issues:
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Individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders may be at increased risk for developing other mental health conditions.

Question 18

attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder

Answer 18

a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Key features of ADHD in AP Psychology:
Inattention: Difficulty focusing, staying on task, organizing, and following instructions.
Hyperactivity: Excessive movement, restlessness, and difficulty sitting still.
Impulsivity: Acting without thinking, blurting out answers, and interrupting conversations.
Important points for AP Psychology:
ADHD is a complex disorder with varying presentations.
It’s crucial to distinguish ADHD from other conditions, such as anxiety disorders, which may share some symptoms.
Understanding the impact of ADHD on various aspects of life is important for AP Psychology students.

Question 19

autism spectrum disorder

Answer 19

neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits and patterns can manifest differently across individuals, leading to the “spectrum” aspect of the diagnosis.
Social Communication and Interaction Deficits:
Individuals with ASD may struggle with understanding and responding to social cues, including nonverbal communication like eye contact and facial expressions, and may have difficulty engaging in reciprocal social interactions.
Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors, Interests, or Activities:
This can include repetitive movements or actions, a strong need for sameness and routines, and intense focus on specific interests or objects.
Onset and Severity:
Symptoms of ASD typically emerge during early childhood, and the severity can vary widely, with some individuals experiencing mild symptoms while others have more significant challenges.
DSM-5 Criteria:
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) provides specific criteria for diagnosing ASD, including persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive behaviors.
Spectrum Disorder:
The term “spectrum” reflects the wide range of severity and presentation of ASD symptoms, with individuals experiencing a continuum of challenges rather than distinct categories.
Related but Distinct Conditions:
While ASD is an umbrella term, it’s important to distinguish it from other conditions like Rett syndrome, which is a separate neurological disorder.

Question 20

schizophrenic spectrum disorders

Answer 20

a group of related conditions, including schizophrenia, characterized by disruptions in thought, perception, and behavior, often including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. These disorders are considered to be on a spectrum, varying in severity and duration of symptoms.
Core Features:
SSDs involve a loss of contact with reality, leading to disorganized thinking, speech, and behavior.
Spectrum of Disorders:
The DSM-5 includes several disorders within the spectrum, including schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, and others.
Distinguished from Other Psychotic Disorders:
While SSDs share psychotic features with other psychotic disorders, they are distinguished by specific symptom profiles, duration of symptoms, and presence or absence of mood disorder symptoms.
Positive Symptoms:
These are symptoms that are added to normal experiences, such as delusions (fixed, false beliefs) and hallucinations (false perceptions).
Negative Symptoms:
These are symptoms that involve a lack of normal experiences, such as flat affect (reduced emotional expression) and avolition (lack of motivation).
Cognitive Impairments:
SSDs are also associated with cognitive impairments in areas like memory, attention, and executive function.
For example, schizophrenia is a specific disorder within the spectrum characterized by persistent delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and negative symptoms. Schizoaffective disorder, on the other hand, includes symptoms of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder (like depression or mania).

Question 21

delusions (persecution, grandeur)

Answer 21

persistent, fixed, and false beliefs that are held despite evidence to the contrary. They represent a significant disturbance in thinking and can be classified into various types, including delusions of persecution and delusions of grandeur.
Delusions of Persecution:
These involve a false belief that one is being mistreated, harassed, spied on, or conspired against by others.
Individuals with persecutory delusions may believe that their actions are being monitored, that others are trying to harm them, or that there is a plot against them.
Delusions of Grandeur:
These involve a false belief that one possesses exceptional abilities, special powers, or is of extraordinary importance.
Individuals with grandiose delusions may believe they are famous, have supernatural abilities, are a ruling monarch, or have a significant connection to important figures.
Key Concepts in the AP Psychology Context:
False Belief: Delusions are based on false beliefs that are not grounded in reality.
Fixed Beliefs: These beliefs are stubbornly held and resistant to evidence that contradicts them.
Persistence: The delusions persist over time and are not easily dispelled.
Disturbance in Thinking: Delusions reflect a significant disruption in an individual’s thought processes.
Delusions are a common symptom of various mental disorders, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and delusional disorder. They can significantly impact an individual’s ability to function in daily life and can be distressing for both the person experiencing the delusion and those around them

Question 22

hallucinations

Answer 22

a sensory experience that occurs in the absence of an external stimulus, often involving seeing, hearing, or feeling things that aren’t actually present

Question 23

disorganized thinking, speech

Answer 23

a lack of coherence and logical flow in thought processes and verbal expression, often manifesting as incoherent speech, fragmented ideas, or difficulty following conversational flow.

Question 24

word salad

Answer 24

Definition:
Word salad is a symptom of disorganized thinking that manifests as speech or writing where words are jumbled together in a nonsensical way. It’s like a random mix of words from a dictionary, resulting in sentences that are difficult to understand.
Causes:
Word salad can be caused by various factors, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, brain injury, and substance abuse. In schizophrenia, it’s called schizophasia and is considered a form of formal thought disorder.
Characteristics:
Loose associations: Words and phrases are connected in a weak or illogical way.
Lack of coherence: The overall message is unclear and difficult to follow.
May not be recognized as nonsensical by the individual: People with word salad may not realize that their speech is incoherent, according to Psych Central.

Question 25

disorganized motor behavior

Answer 25

unusual or abnormal movements and actions, such as repetitive, purposeless movements, odd facial expressions, or bizarre gestures. It can manifest as childlike silliness, unpredictable agitation, or a general lack of coordination in everyday activities.

Question 26

catatonia (catatonic stupor)

Answer 26

a state characterized by a lack of movement and responsiveness, along with other motor disturbances like rigidity or unusual postures. It can manifest as either stupor, where the person is unresponsive to stimuli, or as extreme overactivity. While often associated with catatonic schizophrenia, catatonia can also occur in other disorders like bipolar disorder and neurological conditions.

Question 27

stupor (catatonic stupor)

Answer 27

Stupor: A state of reduced responsiveness to stimuli, where the person may appear outwardly awake but is not actively engaging with their environment.

Question 28

negative symptoms

Answer 28

the absence or reduction of normal behaviors, emotions, and thoughts, often seen in individuals with schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. These symptoms represent a lack or decrease in functioning rather than the presence of something abnormal, as in positive symptoms.

Question 29

positive symptoms

Answer 29

the presence of abnormal or exaggerated behaviors, thoughts, and perceptions that indicate a loss of contact with reality, often associated with schizophrenia. These symptoms represent an excess or distortion of normal functioning, as opposed to the absence of normal function (negative symptoms).

Question 30

flat affect

Answer 30

the total or near absence of appropriate emotional responses to situations and events. It's not a condition itself, but rather a symptom often associated with mental health or neurological disorders. Individuals experiencing flat affect may appear emotionally detached or unresponsive, showing little to no variation in facial expressions or tone of voice.

Question 31

schizophrenia causes

Answer 31

Genetic Factors: . While no single gene is responsible, schizophrenia is believed to have a genetic component, meaning individuals with a family history of the disorder are at higher risk. Neurobiological Factors: . Imbalances in brain chemistry, particularly in the levels of neurotransmitters like dopamine, have been implicated. Environmental Factors: . Environmental stressors, such as prenatal complications, substance abuse, and psychosocial stressors, may also play a role in the development of schizophrenia.

Question 32

depressive disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 32

Symptoms: Emotional: Sadness, emptiness, irritability, hopelessness, loss of interest or pleasure in activities. Cognitive: Difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, difficulty making decisions. Behavioral: Changes in appetite and weight, sleep disturbances (insomnia or oversleeping), fatigue, decreased energy. Physical: Changes in appetite, weight, and sleep; fatigue; loss of energy; and potentially physical symptoms like headaches, stomach aches, or chronic pain. Causes: Biological: Genetic predisposition, neurotransmitter imbalances (especially serotonin and norepinephrine), and brain structure abnormalities. Environmental: Stressful life events, loss, trauma, chronic illness, substance abuse, and social isolation. Psychological: Negative thought patterns, low self-esteem, perfectionism, and learned helplessness. Types of Depressive Disorders: Major Depressive Disorder: . Involves a persistent depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure for at least two weeks, along with other symptoms. Persistent Depressive Disorder (formerly dysthymia): . Chronic, low-level depression that may last longer than major depressive disorder but is not as severe. Other Depressive Disorders: . Include disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and substance/medication-induced depressive disorder. Important Considerations for AP Psychology: Depressive disorders are a significant area of study in AP Psychology, often covered in sections on psychological disorders and mood disorders. Understanding the symptoms, causes, and different types of depressive disorders is crucial for students preparing for the AP exam. The AP exam may also include questions about the prevalence of depression, the impact on individuals and society, and different treatment approaches.

Question 33

major depressive disorder

Answer 33

a mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest in activities, along with several other symptoms. These symptoms must be present for at least two weeks and cause significant distress or impairment in daily life. Key Characteristics of MDD: Persistent sadness or loss of interest: This is a core symptom, often accompanied by feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness. Other symptoms: These may include changes in sleep, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and motor activity. Duration: The symptoms must be present for a significant period, typically two weeks or longer, according to the DSM-5. Impairment: The symptoms must cause significant difficulty in work, school, or social relationships. Exclusion of other causes: The symptoms should not be due to the effects of medication, substance abuse, or another medical condition. Important Considerations for AP Psychology: Distinction from other disorders: MDD should be differentiated from other mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder and persistent depressive disorder. Treatment: MDD can be effectively treated with medication (like antidepressants) and/or therapy. Vulnerability and risk factors: MDD can be influenced by genetic, psychological, and environmental factors. Impact on behavior: The symptoms of MDD can significantly impact an individual's behavior, including their social interactions, work performance, and ability to engage in enjoyable activities.

Question 34

persistent depressive disorder

Answer 34

a chronic, low-grade form of depression characterized by a persistent sad, empty, or irritable mood that lasts for most of the day, on most days, for at least two years in adults (one year in children and adolescents). It also involves experiencing two or more other depressive symptoms, such as low energy, low self-esteem, poor concentration, or sleep disturbances, during this period. hronic and Mild: PDD is a chronic (ongoing) depressive disorder, meaning it's long-lasting but typically less severe than major depressive disorder (MDD). Duration: The defining feature of PDD is the duration of symptoms, which must persist for at least two years in adults (one year in children and adolescents). Combination of Symptoms: In addition to the depressed mood, a diagnosis requires the presence of two or more other depressive symptoms. Distinction from MDD: While PDD and MDD share some symptoms, the key difference is the duration of the depressive symptoms. MDD involves episodes of more severe depression that are separated by periods of normal mood. Formerly Called Dysthymia: PDD was previously known as dysthymia, but the term PDD is now used more widely.

Question 35

bipolar disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 35

a mood disorder characterized by significant shifts in mood and energy, alternating between periods of extreme highs (mania or hypomania) and periods of deep sadness and loss of interest (depression). These shifts can affect a person's behavior, thinking, sleep, and overall activity level. Manic/Hypomanic Episodes: These are periods of elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased energy, often accompanied by racing thoughts, decreased need for sleep, and impulsive behavior. Depressive Episodes: These are periods of persistent sadness, loss of interest, and decreased energy, similar to major depressive disorder but occurring in the context of bipolar disorder. Types of Bipolar Disorder: Bipolar I: Characterized by at least one manic episode, which can be accompanied by depressive episodes. Bipolar II: Characterized by at least one hypomanic episode and one depressive episode, but no manic episodes. Impact on Functioning: Bipolar disorder can significantly impact various areas of life, including work, relationships, and social interactions. Causes: While the exact causes are complex and not fully understood, both genetic and environmental factors (like stressful life events) are thought to play a role. Treatment: Bipolar disorder is often managed through medication, therapy, and lifestyle adjustments. Potential for Psychosis: In some cases, particularly during manic episodes, individuals with bipolar disorder may experience psychosis, involving delusions and hallucinations.

Question 36

mania

Answer 36

a period of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood accompanied by increased activity or energy Elevated, Expansive, or Irritable Mood: . Mania involves a significant shift in mood, often characterized by a feeling of being high, euphoric, or intensely irritable. Increased Activity or Energy: . Individuals in a manic state often experience increased levels of physical and mental activity, including restlessness, racing thoughts, and a need to engage in numerous activities. Inflated Self-Esteem or Grandiosity: . Mania can lead to a sense of inflated self-importance and unrealistic beliefs about one's abilities or accomplishments. Decreased Need for Sleep: . People with mania may require significantly less sleep than usual without feeling fatigued. Rapid or Pressured Speech: . Mania can manifest as rapid, loud, or disorganized speech, often with a feeling of needing to talk constantly. Flight of Ideas or Racing Thoughts: . Individuals may experience a rapid succession of thoughts or ideas, making it difficult to focus or maintain a coherent train of thought. Increased Risk-Taking Behaviors: . Mania can impair judgment, leading to impulsive and risky behaviors, such as excessive spending, risky sexual activity, or neglecting responsibilities. Important Considerations: Mania is distinct from hypomania, which is a milder form of mania with less severe symptoms. Mania is a key symptom of bipolar I disorder, which is characterized by manic episodes alternating with depressive episodes. While mania is often associated with bipolar disorder, it can also occur in other conditions like schizoaffective disorder or as a result of substance use or certain medications.

Question 37

bipolar 1

Answer 37

Key Characteristics of Bipolar I Disorder: Manic Episode: A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased goal-directed activity or energy, lasting at least 1 week, or hospitalization. Depressive Episodes: Periods of sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, changes in sleep or appetite, fatigue, or other symptoms of major depressive disorder. Disturbance in Functioning: The manic and depressive episodes cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. Exclusion of Other Conditions: The symptoms are not attributable to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition.

Question 38

bipolar 2

Answer 38

Key points to remember for AP Psychology: Hypomania: An elevated, irritable mood that is less severe than mania but still causes significant disruption. It's characterized by increased energy, talkativeness, and possibly risky behaviors, but without the psychosis that can occur during mania. Major Depressive Episode: A period of persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms of depression. Lack of Manic Episodes: The defining feature of Bipolar II disorder is that the individual has never experienced a full-blown manic episode, which is the hallmark of Bipolar I disorder. Impact on Daily Life: Both hypomanic and depressive episodes can significantly impact a person's mood, energy, ability to function, and relationships. Important Notes for AP Psychology: Not a Severity Continuum: While Bipolar II was once seen as a less severe form of Bipolar I, recent research suggests that there is not a clear severity continuum. Diagnosis: Diagnosis of Bipolar II disorder requires at least one current or past hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode, and the absence of a full manic episode. Rapid Cycling: In some cases, individuals may experience rapid cycling, which means they experience four or more manic and depressive episodes within a year, but this is less common. Treatment: Bipolar II disorder is often treated with mood stabilizers, antidepressants, and psychotherapy.

Question 39

anxiety disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 39

mental health conditions characterized by excessive fear and worry that significantly interfere with daily life. Symptoms can include physical manifestations like increased heart rate and muscle tension, as well as emotional and behavioral symptoms such as excessive worrying and avoidance behaviors. Causes of anxiety disorders are complex and can include genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and learned behaviors.

Question 40

specific phobia

Answer 40

intense, persistent, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. Intense fear: The individual experiences extreme anxiety and distress when exposed to or even thinking about the feared object or situation. Specific trigger: The phobia is focused on a particular object or situation, such as spiders, heights, or enclosed spaces. Irrational fear: The fear is disproportionate to the actual danger posed by the object or situation. Avoidance behavior: The individual often avoids or goes to great lengths to avoid the feared object or situation. Examples of specific phobias include: Arachnophobia (fear of spiders), Acrophobia (fear of heights), Claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces), Agoraphobia (fear of open spaces or crowds), and Trypanophobia (fear of needles). Specific phobias can significantly impact an individual's daily life and cause significant distress. Treatment options typically involve exposure therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, or medication.

Question 41

agoraphobia

Answer 41

a type of anxiety disorder characterized by fear or anxiety in situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable

Question 42

panic disorder

Answer 42

an anxiety disorder characterized by unexpected and sudden panic attacks. These panic attacks involve intense fear and physical symptoms like heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, or chest pain. The attacks occur "out of the blue," without a clear trigger or apparent danger.

Question 43

ataque de nervios

Answer 43

a culture-bound syndrome, meaning it's a mental health condition specific to certain cultural contexts, rather than a universally recognized disorder. It's prevalent among Latinos and is often described as an intense emotional upset, often triggered by stressful events, particularly those related to family.

Question 44

social anxiety disorder

Answer 44

an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense, persistent fear of social situations where an individual might be scrutinized or negatively evaluated by others. This fear often leads to significant avoidance of social situations, hindering an individual's ability to function effectively in everyday life.

Question 45

taijin kyofusho

Answer 45

a culture-bound syndrome, primarily seen in Japanese culture, characterized by an intense fear that one's body, its parts, or functions are offensive or displeasing to others. It's a form of social anxiety disorder where individuals worry about how their appearance, odor, or movements might embarrass or upset others.

Question 46

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Answer 46

a mental disorder characterized by excessive and persistent worry about various aspects of life, making it difficult to control this worry

Question 47

Obsessive compulsive and related disorders (symptoms and causes)

Answer 47

persistent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause significant distress or interfere with daily functioning. These disorders are often seen in conjunction with anxiety and depression, and are thought to be influenced by genetics, biology, and potentially traumatic events Obsessions: . Intrusive and unwanted thoughts, urges, or images that cause anxiety or distress. Examples include fears of contamination, aggressive thoughts, or sexual thoughts. Compulsions: . Repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed in response to obsessions, aiming to neutralize the anxiety caused by the intrusive thoughts. Examples include excessive handwashing, checking, counting, or ordering. Distress and Interference: . The symptoms must cause significant distress or interfere with a person's daily functioning in areas like relationships, work, or school. Related Disorders: . Besides OCD, other related disorders include body dysmorphic disorder (excessive preoccupation with perceived flaws in physical appearance), hoarding disorder (persistent difficulty discarding possessions), and trichotillomania (excessive hair pulling). Causes: Genetics: OCD may have a genetic component, but specific genes have not been identified. Biology: Changes in brain chemistry or function may contribute to the development of OCD. Learning: Obsessive fears and compulsive behaviors can be learned through observation and experience. Trauma: Traumatic experiences, particularly in childhood, may increase the risk of developing OCD.

Question 48

obsessive compulsive disorder

Answer 48

disorder characterized by intrusive, unwanted thoughts and feelings (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed to reduce the anxiety associated with the obsessions. These obsessions and compulsions significantly interfere with daily life and cause distress. Obsessions: These are persistent, intrusive thoughts, images, urges, or doubts that are unwanted and cause distress. They can be about contamination, harming others, need for order, or other anxieties. Compulsions: These are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels compelled to perform in response to the obsessions. Compulsions are often performed to try and neutralize the anxiety caused by the obsessions, such as handwashing, checking, arranging, or mental rituals. Impact: OCD significantly impacts daily functioning, causing distress and difficulty in work, school, and social interactions. Difference from Normal Thoughts: While everyone experiences occasional intrusive thoughts, people with OCD experience them constantly and intensely, leading to significant distress and functional impairment.

Question 49

hoarding disorder

Answer 49

a mental health condition characterized by a persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value, leading to a significant amount of clutter that interferes with daily life and causes distress

Question 50

dissociative disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 50

disruption or breakdown in the normal integrative functions of consciousness, memory, identity, and/or perception. These disorders involve a disconnection from oneself and/or one's environment. Symptoms can include amnesia, depersonalization, derealization, and in severe cases, the development of multiple identities. The most common causes are believed to be severe stress or trauma, such as abuse or neglect. Definition: Dissociative disorders are characterized by a disruption or breakdown in normal integrative functions of consciousness, memory, identity, and/or perception. Symptoms: Depersonalization/Derealization: Feeling detached from one's own body, thoughts, or feelings, or feeling like the world is unreal. Dissociative Amnesia: Loss of memory for personal information or events. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): (Formerly multiple personality disorder) Presence of two or more distinct identities that control a person's behavior. Causes: While not fully understood, dissociative disorders are often associated with severe trauma, abuse, or neglect, and/or extreme stress. Types: Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder: Persistent or recurrent depersonalization and/or derealization feelings. Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, typically of a traumatic or stressful nature. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): The presence of two or more distinct identities that control a person's behavior. Important Considerations for AP Students: Memorization: Be familiar with the key terms (depersonalization, derealization, dissociative amnesia, DID) and their definitions. Application: Understand how dissociative disorders can be used to explain or explain away certain behaviors or symptoms in case studies. Distinction from other disorders: Know that dissociative disorders are not the same as psychotic disorders, though there can be overlap in symptoms like depersonalization. Treatment: While not typically covered in detail in AP Psychology, be aware that treatment for dissociative disorders often involves psychotherapy and/or medication.

Question 51

dissociative amnesia (with and without fatigue)

Answer 51

a dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden inability to recall important personal information, often related to a traumatic or stressful event, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness. This memory loss is not due to a physical or neurological cause, but rather a psychological one. While fatigue can be a symptom associated with various psychological disorders, it's not a defining feature of dissociative amnesia itself. Definition: Dissociative amnesia is a type of memory loss where a person cannot access certain memories, usually after a traumatic event. Cause: It's a psychological defense mechanism, often triggered by severe stress or trauma, to protect individuals from recalling painful memories. Types: Localized amnesia: Inability to recall events during a specific period of time. Selective amnesia: Inability to recall specific aspects of an event. Generalized amnesia: Inability to recall one's entire life history and identity. Key Features: Memory gaps: Individuals experience gaps in their memory, unable to recall important personal information. Trauma-related: The amnesia is often linked to a traumatic or stressful experience. Not due to physical causes: The memory loss is not caused by a physical or neurological condition. Dissociative Fugue: In some cases, dissociative amnesia can be accompanied by dissociative fugue, where individuals may suddenly travel or wander, experience confusion about their identity, and even adopt a new identity. Fatigue: While fatigue can be a symptom of various psychological disorders, including those associated with trauma, it's not a defining characteristic of dissociative amnesia itself. Fatigue can be a contributing factor to the development of dissociative disorders, but it's not the primary cause or symptom.

Question 52

dissociative identity disorder

Answer 52

a disorder where a person exhibits two or more distinct personality states, each controlling their behavior at different times. These personalities often have their own voices, ways of speaking, and behavioral patterns. DID is believed to be a result of severe trauma causing the individual to dissociate or split away as a protective mechanism. Two or more distinct personalities: The core feature is the presence of at least two separate identities that take control of the person's behavior at different times. Amnesia/Memory gaps: Individuals with DID may experience gaps in their memory of personal information, daily events, or traumatic events, which is more significant than ordinary forgetting. Dissociation: The term "dissociation" refers to a disconnection from oneself and the world, often experienced as a form of psychological protection from overwhelming trauma. Trauma: DID is strongly linked to severe trauma, often childhood abuse, though the exact cause is not fully understood. Misdiagnosis: Due to the complexity of DID, it can be easily misdiagnosed, and patients often require multiple assessments for an accurate diagnosis.

Question 53

trauma and stressor related disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 53

a group of mental health conditions triggered by exposure to traumatic or stressful events. Symptoms can include intrusive memories, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, negative mood changes, and heightened arousal and reactivity. Causes primarily include exposure to traumatic experiences like abuse, neglect, or violence, or chronic stress. Definition: Trauma and stressor-related disorders, as defined in the DSM-5, are mental health conditions that are directly linked to the experience of traumatic or stressful events. These disorders encompass a range of conditions, including PTSD, acute stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder. Symptoms: Intrusive Memories and Flashbacks: Recurrent, unwanted thoughts, images, or flashbacks of the traumatic event. Avoidance: Avoiding thoughts, feelings, places, or people associated with the trauma. Negative Mood Changes: Persistent negative emotions, including sadness, anger, guilt, or shame. Heightened Arousal and Reactivity: Difficulty sleeping, irritability, hypervigilance, and a tendency to be easily startled. Dissociation: Feeling detached from oneself or the surrounding reality. Causes: Exposure to Traumatic Events: The primary cause is exposure to traumatic events, such as physical or emotional abuse, neglect, or violence. Chronic Stress: Prolonged or severe stress can also contribute to the development of these disorders. Individual Factors: Genetics, personality traits, and prior experiences can also play a role in an individual's vulnerability to these disorders. Examples of Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): . A disorder that develops after exposure to a traumatic event, characterized by persistent symptoms of intrusive memories, avoidance, negative mood changes, and heightened arousal and reactivity. Acute Stress Disorder: . Similar to PTSD, but symptoms develop shortly after a traumatic event and last for up to one month. Reactive Attachment Disorder: . A disorder that develops in children who have experienced severe neglect or abuse, characterized by difficulty forming healthy attachments. Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder: . Another disorder that can develop in children who have experienced severe neglect or abuse, characterized by overly friendly and indiscriminate behavior towards strangers. Adjustment Disorder: . A reaction to a stressful event, such as a major life change or a significant loss, that is characterized by symptoms like anxiety or depression.

Question 54

post traumatic stress disorder

Answer 54

mental health condition that develops after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. It's characterized by symptoms including intrusive thoughts, nightmares, and flashbacks, along with avoidance of trauma-related stimuli and hyperarousal. These symptoms often lead to difficulty concentrating, disturbed sleep, and an exaggerated startle response. Triggers: . PTSD can develop after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, such as war, natural disasters, accidents, or abuse. Intrusive Symptoms: . Individuals with PTSD may experience intrusive thoughts, flashbacks, or nightmares related to the trauma. Avoidance: . They may try to avoid situations, places, or people that remind them of the traumatic event. Hyperarousal: . PTSD can manifest as an exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping, and irritability. Negative Changes in Cognition and Mood: . Individuals may experience feelings of detachment, loss of interest in activities, and a sense of guilt about surviving the trauma.

Question 55

feeding and eating disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 55

In AP Psychology, feeding and eating disorders are characterized by persistent disturbances in eating behavior or associated thoughts and emotions that significantly impair physical health, psychological functioning, or both. These disorders go beyond typical dieting or occasional overeating, involving maladaptive patterns that can have severe and sometimes life-threatening consequences. Disturbed Eating Patterns: This can include extreme restriction of food intake, binge eating episodes (consuming large amounts of food with a sense of loss of control), and compensatory behaviors like purging (self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives), fasting, or excessive exercise. Body Image Distortion: Many individuals with eating disorders have a distorted perception of their body weight and shape, often seeing themselves as overweight even when they are underweight. Preoccupation with Weight and Shape: There is often an intense fear of gaining weight, and self-worth can be overly dependent on weight and shape. Emotional and Behavioral Issues: Individuals may experience anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, social withdrawal, and difficulty regulating emotions. Common Causes: Genetic Predisposition: Research suggests that eating disorders can run in families, indicating a possible genetic component. Psychological Factors: Low self-esteem, perfectionism, a history of trauma, and difficulty coping with emotions are linked to the development of eating disorders. Social and Cultural Influences: Societal pressures to be thin, media portrayals of idealized body types, and cultural norms that emphasize appearance can contribute. Interpersonal Factors: Troubled family dynamics, a history of being teased or bullied about weight, and relationship difficulties can play a role. Examples of Feeding and Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by severe restriction of food intake, leading to significantly low body weight, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image. Bulimia Nervosa: Involves recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain. Binge Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent binge eating episodes without the compensatory behaviors seen in bulimia nervosa. Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID): Characterized by a lack of interest in eating, avoidance of food due to sensory sensitivities, or fear of aversive consequences of eating. Note: It's important to understand that feeding and eating disorders are complex and multifaceted. Treatment often involves a combination of medical care, nutritional counseling, psychotherapy, and support for both the individual and their family.

Question 56

anorexia nervosa

Answer 56

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted body image, and the restriction of energy intake, leading to a significantly low body weight. It is a serious mental health condition with potentially life-threatening physical consequences. Symptoms: Anorexia nervosa manifests through a combination of physical, behavioral, and emotional symptoms: 1. Physical Symptoms: Significantly low body weight: Often below 85% of expected weight or BMI of 18.5 or less. Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation in females. Fatigue and weakness: Due to malnutrition and lack of energy. Dizziness and fainting: Resulting from low blood pressure and dehydration. Cold intolerance: Difficulty staying warm due to reduced body fat. Hair loss and brittle nails: Indicative of nutrient deficiencies. Dry skin and lanugo: Fine, downy hair growth on the body, a sign of starvation. Gastrointestinal issues: Constipation, bloating, and stomach pain. 2. Behavioral Symptoms: Severe restriction of food intake: Drastically limiting calories and types of food. Intense fear of weight gain: Obsessive worry about weight and shape. Excessive exercise: Driven by a need to burn calories and lose weight [1.1.10, 1

Question 57

bulimia nervosa

Answer 57

Bulimia Nervosa, as defined in AP Psychology, is a serious eating disorder characterized by a cycle of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain. 1. Core Features: Binge Eating: Consuming an unusually large amount of food in a short period, often accompanied by a sense of loss of control. Compensatory Behaviors: Actions taken to counteract the effects of binge eating, often involving purging (self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or diuretics), fasting, or excessive exercise. 2. Key Symptoms (Beyond the Core Features): Preoccupation with Body Image: An intense focus on weight and body shape and a distorted perception of one's own body. Fear of Gaining Weight: A significant and persistent fear of weight gain, even when at a healthy or normal weight. Self-Esteem Linked to Body Image: Self-worth is significantly influenced by body weight and shape. Secrecy and Shame: Binge eating and compensatory behaviors are often carried out in secret due to feelings of shame and guilt. 3. Physical and Psychological Symptoms: Physical Symptoms: May include dental problems (erosion of tooth enamel), swollen cheeks or jawline, gastrointestinal issues, dehydration, fatigue, and irregular menstrual periods. Psychological Symptoms: May include depression, anxiety, feelings of guilt and shame, low self-esteem, and social withdrawal. In simpler terms: Individuals with bulimia nervosa struggle with a cycle of consuming large amounts of food and then feeling a strong need to undo the effects of this overeating through unhealthy behaviors. Binge eating: Recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food in a short period, accompanied by a sense of loss of control. Compensatory behaviors: Inappropriate actions taken to counteract the effects of binge eating, including self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or diuretics, fasting, or excessive exercise. Body image disturbance: An excessive concern with body shape and weight, often disproportionately influencing self-evaluation. Emotional distress: Experiencing feelings of guilt, shame, and a loss of control related to eating. Causes (Etiology): While the exact cause of bulimia nervosa is unknown, it's generally understood to be a complex interplay of various factors, including: Genetic Predisposition: A family history of eating disorders or mental health conditions increases the risk. Psychological Factors: Low self-esteem and perfectionism: Difficulty with self-worth and setting unrealistically high standards can contribute. Trauma and adversity: Past experiences of abuse or bullying can be triggers. Underlying mental health conditions: Depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder are commonly co-occurring. Difficulty managing emotions and stress: Some individuals use food as a coping mechanism to deal with negative emotions. Social and Cultural Influences: Societal pressures to be thin and unrealistic media portrayals of body image can play a role. Biological Factors: Research suggests that hormonal changes during puberty and potential imbalances in neurotransmitters may also contribute. Important Note: It's crucial to remember that eating disorders are complex illnesses and not a matter of personal choice or willpower.

Question 58

personality disorders (symptoms, causes)

Answer 58

enduring, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of life. These patterns, which begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are considered maladaptive and differ significantly from cultural expectations. Personality disorders are categorized into three clusters: Cluster A (odd/eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic/erratic), and Cluster C (anxious/inhibited). Key features of personality disorders (according to the APA): Distorted thinking patterns: . People with personality disorders may have difficulty accurately perceiving reality, which can lead to misinterpretations of situations and events. Problematic emotional responses: . These individuals may struggle to regulate their emotions, experience intense or unstable emotions, or have difficulty identifying their feelings. Over- or under-regulated impulse control: . They may struggle to control impulses, engage in risky or harmful behaviors, or have difficulty delaying gratification. Interpersonal difficulties: . These individuals may have difficulty forming and maintaining relationships, experience social anxiety, or struggle with empathy or social skills. Causes of personality disorders: Genetic vulnerability: Personality disorders may be influenced by genetic factors, making some individuals more susceptible to developing these disorders. Early life experiences: Traumatic or stressful childhood experiences, such as abuse or neglect, can increase the risk of developing personality disorders. Neurobiological factors: Imbalances in neurotransmitters or abnormalities in brain structure or function may also play a role. Psychosocial factors: Attachment relationships, family dynamics, and social influences can also contribute to the development of personality disorders.

Question 59

cluster A personality disorders (weird)

Answer 59

unusual and odd thoughts and behaviors. It includes: Paranoid personality disorder, in which a person has paranoia (an extreme fear and distrust of others). ymptoms: Paranoid Personality Disorder: . This involves a pervasive distrust and suspicion of others, with the belief that others are trying to harm or demean them. Schizoid Personality Disorder: . Characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships and a preference for solitary activities. Schizotypal Personality Disorder: . This involves discomfort with close relationships, unusual beliefs or perceptions of reality, and eccentric behavior. Causes: The exact causes of personality disorders are not fully understood, but are believed to be a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors. Early life experiences, particularly those involving instability, neglect, or trauma, can also play a role in the development of personality disorders. In summary, Cluster A personality disorders are characterized by odd, eccentric, and socially withdrawn behaviors. They are often associated with distrust, social isolation, and unusual beliefs or perceptions of reality.

Question 60

paranoid personality disorder

Answer 60

Symptoms: Distrust and suspicion: Individuals with PPD are consistently suspicious of others' motives, assuming they are deceptive or trying to harm them. Doubting loyalty: They often question the loyalty of friends and family, fearing betrayal. Difficulty confiding: They are hesitant to share personal information, fearing it will be used against them. Interpreting events negatively: They tend to see harmless actions as threats or insults, and may become angry or hostile in response. Unforgiving: They are slow to forgive perceived slights and may hold grudges. Perceiving attacks: They may misinterpret innocent remarks or actions as attacks on their character. Jealousy: They may experience excessive jealousy in romantic relationships, without justification. Causes: Genetics: Research suggests a possible genetic link, with PPD being more common in families with psychotic disorders. Early childhood experiences: Trauma, neglect, or abuse in childhood may contribute to the development of PPD. Psychological factors: Cognitive distortions, such as the tendency to see threats where none exist, play a role. AP Psychology Definition:

Question 61

schizoid personality disorder

Answer 61

Symptoms: Social Isolation: A strong desire to be alone and avoid social interactions. Lack of Interest in Relationships: Little desire for close relationships, even with family. Limited Emotional Expression: Difficulty expressing emotions, showing little joy or sadness. Indifference to Praise or Criticism: Apparent lack of concern about positive or negative feedback from others. Solitary Activities: Preference for activities that can be done alone, such as reading or computer games. Causes: Genetic Predisposition: Some research suggests a genetic link between schizoid personality disorder and other disorders like schizophrenia. Childhood Experiences: Traumatic experiences, such as abuse or neglect, may contribute to the development of schizoid features. Neurobiological Factors: Brain abnormalities or injuries may increase the risk of schizoid personality disorder. Socioeconomic Factors: Malnutrition or other socioeconomic conditions may play a role. Key Points: Schizoid personality disorder is classified as a Cluster A personality disorder, along with paranoid and schizotypal personality disorders. Individuals with schizoid personality disorder are in touch with reality and do not typically experience delusions or hallucinations. The disorder is often first noticeable during childhood and is typically apparent by early adulthood.

Question 62

schizotypal personality disorder

Answer 62

Symptoms: Odd thoughts and perceptions: This can include unusual beliefs or superstitions, ideas of reference, or perceptual distortions. Eccentric behavior: Individuals may have unusual mannerisms, appearance, or speech patterns. Social isolation and anxiety: They may struggle to form close relationships and experience significant discomfort in social situations. Limited emotional responses: Their facial expressions and emotional displays may seem flat or inappropriate for the situation. Difficulty with social cues: They may struggle to understand social norms and respond appropriately to social interactions. Causes: The exact causes of SPPD are not fully understood, but research suggests a combination of genetic, psychological, and environmental factors may play a role. Genetics: . Some research suggests a genetic predisposition to the disorder, particularly in individuals with a family history of schizophrenia or other mental health conditions. Environmental factors: . Exposure to trauma, abuse, or neglect in childhood may also increase the risk of developing SPPD. Brain differences: . Some studies suggest differences in brain structure and function may be associated with SPPD. Key Differences from Schizophrenia: While SPPD is often associated with schizophrenia, there are key differences: Hallucinations and delusions: Individuals with SPPD do not typically experience hallucinations or delusions, although they may have unusual beliefs or perceptual distortions. Severity: The symptoms of SPPD are generally less severe and less disruptive than those of schizophrenia. Psychotic episodes: Individuals with SPPD may experience transient psychotic episodes, but these are rare and do not occur regularly like in schizophrenia. Treatment: Treatment for SPPD typically involves therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and psychotherapy, to help individuals develop coping skills and improve their social interactions. Medications may also be used to address symptoms such as anxiety or paranoia

Question 63

cluster B personality disorder (wild)

Answer 63

individuals who display erratic behavior and uncontrolled emotions. They are often dramatic. The four types of Cluster B personality disorders are borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, and antisocial.

Question 64

antisocial personality disorder

Answer 64

symptoms: Deceitfulness and Manipulation: Lying, using aliases, conning others, and manipulating situations for personal gain. Impulsivity and Risk-Taking: Acting without planning, engaging in risky behaviors (e.g., reckless driving, dangerous sexual behaviors). Irritability and Aggression: Being easily angered, prone to fights or physical altercations. Reckless Disregard for Safety: Ignoring the safety of oneself and others. Lack of Remorse: Showing no guilt or regret for harming others. Failure to Conform to Social Norms: Ignoring laws and regulations. Irresponsibility: Failing to hold down jobs, manage finances, or fulfill commitments. Disregard for Rights of Others: Exploiting or violating the rights of others. Causes: While the exact cause of ASPD is unknown, it's believed to be a combination of factors including: Genetic predisposition: Higher incidence in individuals with family members who have ASPD. Early childhood experiences: Childhood trauma, abuse, neglect, exposure to violence, or an unstable family environment. Developmental factors: The presence of conduct disorder (CD) in childhood, which is a precursor to ASPD. Neurobiological factors: Research suggests potential differences in brain structure and function, particularly in areas related to emotion regulation and decision-making. Environmental factors: Exposure to criminal behavior or antisocial role models. In AP Psychology, it's important to remember: ASPD is a personality disorder, meaning it's a persistent pattern of maladaptive behavior. It is a complex disorder with a variety of contributing factors. Individuals with ASPD may exhibit a range of behaviors, from mild to severe, and may or may not meet the criteria for psychopathy.

Question 65

histrionic personality disorder

Answer 65

Symptom Summary: Excessive Attention-Seeking: Individuals are uncomfortable when they are not the center of attention and may use dramatic or inappropriate behavior to draw attention. Emotional Volatility: Emotions tend to be shallow and change rapidly, and they may experience exaggerated emotional reactions to situations. Seductive Behavior: Individuals may engage in inappropriate sexually seductive or provocative behaviors in social situations. Need for Approval: They are easily influenced by others and constantly seek reassurance or approval. Dramatic Speech: Their speech is often vague, lacks detail, and is impressionistic. Shallow Emotions: Emotions are not deep or genuine and can change quickly. Causes: Genetic Factors: A predisposition to personality disorders may be inherited. Environmental Factors: Childhood experiences, such as inconsistent parenting, may play a role in developing HPD. Neurotransmitters: Research suggests a link between the function of neurotransmitters and HPD. Family History: A family history of mental health issues, including personality disorders, anxiety, or depression, can increase the risk. Treatment: Psychotherapy: . Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive-behavioral therapy, is the primary treatment for HPD. Medication: . While not a primary treatment, medications may be used to manage co-occurring conditions like anxiety or depression. Group Therapy: . Group therapy can provide a supportive environment for individuals with HPD to learn from others and develop coping skills.

Question 66

borderline personality disorder

Answer 66

Symptoms: Unstable relationships: . Intense, volatile relationships with rapid shifts between idealization and devaluation of others. Fear of abandonment: . A deep-seated fear of being alone or abandoned, leading to intense efforts to avoid it. Instability in self-image: . Unclear or shifting self-identity, values, and beliefs. Impulsive behaviors: . Engaging in risky or self-destructive behaviors, such as substance abuse, reckless driving, or self-harm. Emotional instability: . Extreme mood swings, difficulty controlling anger, and chronic feelings of emptiness. Difficulty regulating emotions: . Struggling to manage intense emotions and experiencing emotional dysregulation. Causes: Genetic predisposition: Family history of BPD suggests a possible genetic component. Environmental factors: Early life experiences, such as childhood trauma, neglect, or abuse, may contribute. Brain differences: Research suggests potential differences in brain structure and function in individuals with BPD. Note: BPD is often comorbid with other mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, or substance use disorders.

Question 67

cluster c personality disorder (worried)

Answer 67

characterized by anxious and fearful behaviors, including avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). These disorders are marked by patterns of excessive worry, anxiety, and fear, leading to difficulties in relationships and functioning.

Question 68

avoidant personality disorder

Answer 68

Symptoms: Social Inhibition: APD involves a reluctance to engage in social interactions due to fear of criticism or rejection. Feelings of Inadequacy: Individuals with APD often have a negative self-image, believing they are inferior or socially inept. Hypersensitivity to Negative Evaluation: They are excessively concerned about being criticized or rejected, leading to avoidance of situations where they might be evaluated. Fear of Rejection: This fear drives their avoidance of social interactions and new experiences. Avoidance of Interpersonal Activities: They may avoid activities that involve significant interaction with others due to their fear of rejection. Reluctance to Take Risks: They are hesitant to try new things or take risks because they fear failure or negative outcomes. Causes: Genetic Factors: Research suggests a genetic component to APD, possibly influenced by traits related to anxiety and social sensitivity. Childhood Trauma: Experiences of rejection, ridicule, or neglect during childhood can contribute to the development of APD. Early Childhood Attachment Styles: Insecure attachment styles, particularly avoidant attachment, may increase vulnerability to APD. Personality Traits: Individuals may have predispositions towards social anxiety and avoidance, which can contribute to the development of APD. Social and Cultural Factors: Experiences of rejection or marginalization within social environments can also play a role.

Question 69

dependent personality disorder

Answer 69

Symptoms of Dependent Personality Disorder: Excessive Need to be Taken Care Of: This manifests as a strong desire for others to make decisions for them, to do things for them, and to provide reassurance. Difficulty Making Decisions: Individuals with DPD may struggle to make even simple choices without advice and support from others. Submissiveness and Clingy Behavior: They may be overly compliant with the wishes of others, even when it means compromising their own needs or desires. Intense Fear of Abandonment: This can lead to intense distress when relationships end or when the person perceives a threat of abandonment. Difficulty Expressing Disagreements: They may avoid disagreements for fear of losing support or approval from others. Need for Constant Reassurance: They may constantly seek reassurance and validation from others about their abilities and decisions. Feeling Helpless When Alone: They may feel uncomfortable or helpless when alone due to a fear of being unable to care for themselves. Causes of Dependent Personality Disorder: Genetic Factors: Research suggests that there may be a genetic predisposition to developing DPD, with some studies indicating that shared genes may account for a significant portion of the risk. Environmental Factors: Childhood experiences, such as neglect, abuse, or unstable family life, may also contribute to the development of DPD. Social and Cultural Factors: Certain cultural norms or social expectations that emphasize dependence or submissiveness may also play a role. Interpersonal Factors: Early childhood relationships, particularly those with caregivers, can influence the development of DPD. AP Psychology Perspective: In AP Psychology, DPD is categorized as a Cluster C personality disorder, along with Avoidant and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders. These disorders are characterized by anxiety and fear of social situations. Important Note: It is crucial to remember that these are generalizations, and individuals with DPD may experience these symptoms to varying degrees. A formal diagnosis can only be made by a qualified mental health professional.

Question 70

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Answer 70

Symptoms of OCPD: Perfectionism: A relentless pursuit of flawlessness, often at the expense of task completion or delegation. Excessive devotion to work: Prioritizing work over leisure, relationships, and personal life. Rigidity and stubbornness: Difficulty adapting to change or accepting alternative viewpoints. Preoccupation with orderliness, rules, and details: Excessive attention to details and a need for order that can hinder productivity. Inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise: A strong belief in one's own methods and difficulty in seeing other perspectives. Difficulty expressing emotions: A tendency to suppress emotions and express affection in a controlled manner. Lack of generosity: A reluctance to spend money or share resources with others. Hoarding: An inability to discard items, even those with no sentimental or practical value. Causes of OCPD: The exact causes of OCPD are not fully understood, but research suggests a combination of genetic and environmental factors may play a role. Family history: Individuals with a family history of personality disorders may be more likely to develop OCPD. Learning: OCPD may be learned through observing family members or developing certain personality traits over time. Early childhood experiences: Experiences with inconsistent or demanding parents may contribute to the development of OCPD. Distinguishing OCPD from OCD: OCPD is a personality disorder, meaning it's a persistent pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are inflexible and maladaptive. OCD is an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety. Individuals with OCPD may experience anxiety and depression, but their core issue is a pattern of perfectionism, orderliness, and control, rather than obsessions and compulsions.

Question 71

deinstitutionalization

Answer 71

the policy shift in the mid-20th century that moved patients with mental illnesses from long-term, large psychiatric institutions (like asylums) to community-based mental health care. This process was fueled by advancements in psychiatric medications and a growing awareness of patient's rights Historical Context: Before deinstitutionalization, individuals with severe mental illnesses were often confined to state-run psychiatric hospitals, which were often overcrowded and lacked adequate care. The Shift: Deinstitutionalization aimed to replace these large institutions with community mental health centers, halfway houses, and outpatient clinics. Goals: The goals of deinstitutionalization were to: Provide more individualized and humane care. Reduce the stigma associated with mental illness. Integrate individuals with mental illnesses back into society. Challenges: While deinstitutionalization had positive aspects, it also faced challenges: Many individuals lacked adequate support in the community, leading to homelessness and re-institutionalization in prisons. The transition was not always smooth, with some individuals experiencing increased rates of depression, addiction, and other issues. Impact: Deinstitutionalization significantly changed the landscape of mental health care, moving from a primarily institutional model to a community-based one.

Question 72

ethical principles (APA standards: nonmaleficence, fidelity, integrity, respect for people's rights and dignity)

Answer 72

Nonmaleficence: This principle focuses on minimizing harm and maximizing benefits for participants in research or therapy. It involves avoiding actions that could cause distress, injury, or negative experiences. Fidelity: This principle emphasizes the importance of trust and responsibility. Psychologists should uphold their commitments to participants, maintain confidentiality, and act in their best interests. Integrity: This principle highlights the importance of honesty, transparency, and accuracy in research and practice. Psychologists should avoid deception, manipulation, or misrepresentation of findings. Respect for People's Rights and Dignity: This principle emphasizes the value of individuals' rights, autonomy, and privacy. It requires psychologists to treat all individuals with fairness and respect, acknowledging their cultural and individual differences.

Question 73

psychodynamic therapy techniques

Answer 73

Key Concepts: Unconscious Processes: . Psychodynamic therapy acknowledges that unconscious thoughts, desires, and conflicts play a significant role in shaping an individual's behavior and experiences. Past Experiences: . The theory suggests that past experiences, particularly those from childhood, can profoundly influence current psychological functioning. Self-Awareness and Insight: . The primary goals of psychodynamic therapy are to increase self-awareness and foster an understanding of how past experiences and unconscious processes impact present behaviors. Transference: . A concept in psychodynamic therapy where patients project feelings and emotions onto the therapist, often based on past relationships. Interpretation of Resistance: . Therapists analyze any resistance or reluctance the patient shows in therapy, as it can indicate unconscious material they are avoiding. Analysis of Transference: . The therapist analyzes the patient's feelings and responses toward them, as it can reveal unconscious patterns in relationships. In essence, psychodynamic therapy aims to help individuals explore their inner world, understand the roots of their problems, and develop greater self-awareness and control over their lives.

Question 74

free association

Answer 74

Patients are encouraged to talk freely about whatever comes to mind, without censorship, to access unconscious material.

Question 75

dream analysis

Answer 75

Dreams are seen as symbolic representations of unconscious thoughts and desires, which can be interpreted to reveal hidden conflicts and motivations.

Question 76

cognitive therapy techniques

Answer 76

focus on changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking patterns to improve emotional well-being and behavior. These techniques involve identifying and challenging negative or irrational thoughts, often using methods like cognitive restructuring, journaling, and Socratic questioning. cognitive Restructuring: This involves helping individuals recognize and question their distorted or negative thoughts and replace them with more realistic and adaptive ones. Journaling: This technique allows individuals to track their thoughts and feelings, helping them identify patterns and potentially challenge negative thought patterns. Socratic Questioning: A method where therapists ask probing questions to help individuals explore their thoughts and assumptions, leading them to question their beliefs and challenge their perspectives. Other techniques: CBT may also involve behavioral experiments (testing out how thoughts affect behaviors), relaxation techniques, and exposure therapy, depending on the specific disorder being addressed. In essence, cognitive therapy helps individuals become more aware of their thought processes, learn to identify and challenge negative or maladaptive thinking patterns, and develop more constructive and adaptive ways of thinking, ultimately leading to improvements in their emotional and behavioral well-being.

Question 77

cognitive restructuring

Answer 77

This involves helping individuals recognize and question their distorted or negative thoughts and replace them with more realistic and adaptive ones.

Question 78

fear hierarchies

Answer 78

a list of feared situations, thoughts, or objects ranked from least to most anxiety-provoking. It's a tool used in therapy, particularly in systematic desensitization, to help individuals gradually confront their fears in a controlled and manageable way.

Question 79

cognitive triad

Answer 79

a set of three negative thought patterns, developed by Aaron Beck, that are commonly observed in individuals experiencing depression. These negative thoughts focus on the self, the world/environment, and the future. Self: Negative thoughts about oneself, such as feelings of worthlessness, inadequacy, or unlovableness. World: Negative perceptions of the external environment, such as believing others are uncaring, the world is unfair, or that events are beyond one's control. Future: Hopelessness and pessimism about the future, believing things will never change or that the situation will continue to be bleak.

Question 80

applied behavior analysis

Answer 80

a behavioral therapy approach that uses a scientific method to understand and modify behavior. It focuses on how learning occurs through environmental interactions and consequences, particularly using principles like positive reinforcement. ABA aims to improve skills and reduce challenging behaviors, often used in settings like education and therapy, especially for individuals with autism Behavioral Therapy: ABA is a form of behavioral therapy that focuses on observable and measurable behaviors. Scientific Approach: ABA uses a scientific method to identify and modify behaviors through systematic analysis and intervention. Learning and Consequences: ABA emphasizes how behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment and the consequences that follow. Positive Reinforcement: ABA frequently uses positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors and make them more likely to occur. Applications: ABA is used in various settings, including education, therapy, and in programs for individuals with autism.

Question 81

exposure therapy

Answer 81

a behavior therapy technique used to treat anxiety disorders by gradually exposing individuals to their feared stimuli in a controlled and safe environment. The goal is to help them learn that their fears are less dangerous than they believe, reducing anxiety and avoidance over time. Gradual Exposure: Exposure therapy doesn't involve forcing someone into a high-anxiety situation immediately. Instead, it involves a step-by-step approach, starting with less frightening scenarios and gradually progressing to more challenging ones. Controlled Environment: The therapist ensures the exposure is in a safe and supportive environment, allowing the individual to learn coping mechanisms and manage their anxiety. Systematic Desensitization: One common type of exposure therapy is systematic desensitization. This method combines exposure with relaxation techniques, helping the individual learn to relax while facing their fear. Benefits: By repeatedly facing their fears in a controlled setting, individuals can reduce their anxiety, decrease avoidance, and improve their ability to cope with the feared stimulus or situation. Example: For someone with a fear of spiders, exposure therapy might start with viewing pictures of spiders, then moving to looking at them in a cage, and finally, holding a harmless spider in their hand.

Question 82

systemic desensitization

Answer 82

One common type of exposure therapy is systematic desensitization. This method combines exposure with relaxation techniques, helping the individual learn to relax while facing their fear.

Question 83

aversion therapy

Answer 83

a strong dislike or negative reaction to something, often as a result of aversive conditioning or a learned association with a negative experience. It can also be understood as the opposite of attraction or preference. Aversive Conditioning: . This involves pairing an undesirable behavior with a negative stimulus to reduce the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. For example, a person might learn to dislike a certain food (aversion) if they become sick after eating it. Taste Aversion: . This is a specific type of aversive conditioning where a dislike or aversion is developed for a particular food due to a previous negative experience, such as illness or nausea. General Aversion: . In broader terms, aversion can refer to any strong feeling of dislike, opposition, or repugnance towards something. In summary, aversion in AP Psychology often involves a learned negative association with a specific stimulus or behavior, resulting in a strong dislike or avoidance.

Question 84

token economy

Answer 84

a behavioral management system that uses tokens or points to reinforce desired behaviors. Individuals earn tokens for performing specific behaviors, and these tokens can then be exchanged for rewards or privileges. Operant Conditioning: Token economies are based on the principles of operant conditioning, where behaviors are learned through reinforcement. Reinforcement: Tokens serve as secondary reinforcers, which can be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food, toys, or free time. Behavior Modification: Token economies are used to modify behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and, in some cases, punishing undesired behaviors with the loss of tokens. Applications: They are used in various settings, including classrooms, hospitals, and therapy sessions, to encourage specific behaviors or reduce problem behaviors. Example: A child might earn tokens for completing homework, and then use those tokens to buy a sticker or a short break from their work.

Question 85

biofeedback

Answer 85

a technique that uses instruments to provide feedback on physiological responses, enabling individuals to learn to consciously control these responses. This process helps people modify physiological processes like heart rate, muscle tension, and skin temperature to improve health or performance.

Question 86

cognitive behavioral therapy

Answer 86

a form of psychotherapy that focuses on changing negative thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to improve mental health. It aims to help individuals develop healthier coping mechanisms and more adaptive ways of thinking. CBT acknowledges the role of learning, environment, cognitions, and language in disturbances.

Question 87

dialectical behavior therapy

Answer 87

a form of psychotherapy that combines cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with mindfulness and acceptance techniques. It was initially developed to treat borderline personality disorder, but is now used for various mental health conditions. DBT aims to improve emotional regulation, interpersonal effectiveness, distress tolerance, and mindfulness.

Question 88

rational emotive behavior therapy

Answer 88

a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy that focuses on challenging and changing irrational thoughts and beliefs to reduce negative emotions and behaviors. It emphasizes that irrational beliefs lead to emotional distress and that by changing these beliefs, individuals can improve their emotional well-being.

Question 89

humanistic therapy

Answer 89

a therapeutic approach that focuses on promoting self-awareness, self-acceptance, and personal growth. It emphasizes the individual's unique potential and abilities, aiming to help individuals realize their full human potential through unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness.

Question 90

person-centered therapy

Answer 90

a humanistic approach developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizing the client's inherent ability to heal and grow. It focuses on creating a supportive environment where the client can explore their thoughts and feelings without judgment, fostering self-discovery and acceptance. The therapist's role is to provide unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness to facilitate the client's self-actualization.

Question 91

active listening

Answer 91

A client-centered technique in which the therapist verbally and non-verbally communicates interest in what the client is saying in order to encourage openness

Question 92

unconditional positive regard

Answer 92

an attitude of acceptance and valuing of a person, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. It's a core concept in Carl Rogers's client-centered therapy and humanistic psychology. It's the idea that someone is loved and accepted for who they are, not for what they do.

Question 93

group/individual therapy

Answer 93

a form of psychotherapy where a small group of individuals meet with a therapist to address shared concerns and goals, while individual therapy is a type of psychotherapy where a trained professional helps a single person work through their issues Individual Therapy: This is a one-on-one therapeutic approach where a therapist helps a single person explore their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, often with a specific therapeutic goal in mind. It allows for a more personalized and focused approach to treatment.

Question 94

effective uses of hypnosis: pain/anxiety not memories or age regression

Answer 94

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Question 95

biological interventions/therapy

Answer 95

therapies that address psychological disorders by focusing on the brain's physical structure and function, often involving medication or medical procedures Focus on Physical Processes: Biological interventions differ from other therapies like psychotherapy, which focus on psychological or behavioral processes. Biological therapies directly address the underlying biological factors believed to contribute to the disorder. Examples of Interventions: Medication: Psychopharmacology, or the use of drugs, is a primary biological intervention. Antidepressants, mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antianxiety medications are common examples. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): ECT involves passing electrical currents through the brain to induce a seizure, which is thought to alter brain chemistry and function. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be used to address specific brain regions or structures associated with a disorder. Relationship to Other Therapies: Biological interventions are often used in conjunction with other forms of therapy, such as psychotherapy, to provide a comprehensive approach to treatment. Biofeedback: A method where individuals learn to control physiological responses like heart rate or brain activity, which can be helpful in treating anxiety and depression. Why are Biological Interventions Important? Addressing Chemical Imbalances: Many psychological disorders are linked to imbalances in brain chemicals like neurotransmitters, and medication can help restore these imbalances. Targeting Specific Brain Areas: Interventions like ECT or surgery can directly target specific brain regions or structures that are thought to be involved in a disorder. Providing Relief: Biological interventions can provide rapid relief from severe symptoms, particularly in cases where other therapies have been ineffective.

Question 96

psychoactive medications

Answer 96

psychoactive medications (also called psychotropic medications) are defined as chemical substances that affect the brain and alter mental processes, such as perception, consciousness, cognition, mood, emotions, and/or behavior.

Question 97

medication interactions with specific neurotransmitters

Answer 97

how drugs affect the transmission of chemical messages between neurons. Medications can act as agonists, mimicking neurotransmitter effects, or as antagonists, blocking them. Neurotransmitters: These are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons (nerve cells) across a synapse (the gap between neurons). They play a crucial role in various mental and physical processes, according to Khan Academy. Medications and Neurotransmitters: Many medications, both prescription and illicit, interact with neurotransmitter systems. They can influence how neurotransmitters are: Synthesized (produced) . Stored in vesicles (storage compartments within the neuron) . Released into the synapse . Reabsorbed by the neuron . Destroyed by enzymes . Agonists: These medications mimic the effects of neurotransmitters by binding to the same receptor sites and activating them. This can be used to increase the effects of a neurotransmitter, according to OERTX. Antagonists: These medications block the effects of neurotransmitters by binding to their receptor sites without activating them. This can be used to decrease the effects of a neurotransmitter, according to OERTX. Examples: Antipsychotics: Often antagonists of dopamine, which can help manage symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, according to OERTX. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): These are often used to treat depression and anxiety. They block the reabsorption of serotonin, increasing its availability in the synapse,

Question 98

antidepressants

Answer 98

medications used to treat depression and some other mental health conditions. They work by influencing the brain's chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, primarily serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. By manipulating the levels or reuptake of these neurotransmitters, antidepressants aim to improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

Question 99

anti-anxiety medications

Answer 99

psychoactive drugs used to treat anxiety disorders and reduce related symptoms like fear, worry, and panic. These medications work by affecting the central nervous system, often by depressing its activity to induce a sense of relaxation.

Question 100

lithium

Answer 100

a mood-stabilizing medication primarily used to treat bipolar disorder It helps balance mood swings, preventing manic and depressive episodes. Lithium is a naturally occurring element that has been studied extensively for its effects on the brain and its ability to regulate mood.

Question 101

antipsychotic medications

Answer 101

psychotropic drugs primarily used to manage the symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking, often associated with conditions like schizophrenia. These medications, also known as neuroleptics, work by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain, particularly by blocking dopamine receptors.

Question 102

antipsychotic medication side effect: tardive dyskinesia

Answer 102

Tardive dyskinesia is a neurological disorder that results from the extended use of antipsychotic drugs.

Question 103

surgery/invasive interventions

Answer 103

a technique or procedure that involves physically entering the body or brain to gather data or manipulate specific areas

Question 104

psychosurgery (can include lesioning)

Answer 104

Psychosurgery. surgical procedures on brain tissue that remove or disconnect nerve pathways to treat mental disorders. Lesioning. a form of psychosurgery involving the removal or destruction of part of the brain.

Question 105

TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation

Answer 105

a non-invasive brain stimulation technique where a magnetic field is used to stimulate brain cells, primarily to improve symptoms of depression

Question 106

ECT: electroconvulsive therapy

Answer 106

a medical treatment used in the field of psychology to treat severe mental health disorders, particularly major depression. ECT involves passing an electrical current through the brain to induce a brief seizure. This procedure is thought to stimulate the release of neurochemicals in the brain that can improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

Question 107

lobotomy

Answer 107

a discredited form of psychosurgery where connections between the frontal lobes and the rest of the brain are severed to treat psychological disorders