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GEOL109 > Lecture Notes part 2 > Flashcards

Lecture Notes part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two main mechanisms proposed to explain how plate motion occurs?

A

1) Mantle Drag

2) Push pull

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2
Q

What is mantle drag?

A

convective carriers possibly in the asthenosphere rise where heat flow is greatest and sink where material is cooler

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3
Q

What is push pull?

A
  • drag on base of the plate
  • elevation at ridge pushes plate ahead of it
  • plate is pulled into subduction zone by preceding parent plate
  • broken plate segments create additional faces
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4
Q

What is orogeny?

A

a process in which a section of the earth’s crust is folded and deformed by lateral compression to form mountain range

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5
Q

What is an orogenic belt?

A

develops when a continental plate is deformed and forced upwards into a mountain range

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6
Q

What is the process of mountain building called?

A

orogenic

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7
Q

What results when a mantle plume heats up material beneath an ocean basin?

A

a mid-ocean ridge is formed. mountainy

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8
Q

What results when a mantle plume heats up material beneath a continent?

A

it forms a rift valley

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9
Q

What will a rift valley form as it widens? What does this result in?

A
  • ocean basin

- stable margin deposition

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10
Q

What leads to a volcanic island chain?

A

if the rift valley is associated with a hotspot

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11
Q

What happens if orogeny occurs at ocean-ocean subduction zones with convergence?

A

this process generates volcanic island arcs with a dip-sea trench towards the subducted plate

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12
Q

Does a hot spot move?

A

no

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13
Q

What is Hawaii an example of?

A

a subduction plate and a hot spot

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14
Q

What does orogeny generate at ocean-continent subduction zones?

A

a volcanic arc with a deep-sea trench towards the subducted plate

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15
Q

What forms with both ocean-continent and ocean-ocean subduction zones?

A

an accretionary wedge

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16
Q

What is an accretionary wedge?

A

sediment piled up against the continent

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17
Q

What are accretionary wedges called?

A

fold-and-thrust belts where sediments and oceanic rocks are folded, faulted, and squished.

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18
Q

What results from fold-and-thrust belts?

A

If enough pressure occurs, a new mountain will form.

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19
Q

What do thrust faults slice through?

A

previously folded rocks

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20
Q

What are the base of mountains? What is the surface? (rock type)?

A
  • base = igneous and metamorphic

- surface = sedimentary (slightly metamorphosed)

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21
Q

What are the two types of folds?

A

1) syncline

2) anticline

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22
Q

What is a syncline?

A
  • rocks folded (concave up)

- vertices at bottom

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23
Q

What is an anticline?

A
  • rocks folded (concave down)

- vertices at top

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24
Q

What surrounds the core of a volcanic arc?

A

down the core of a volcanic arc is an igneous arc of plutons and on either side of this is a metamorphic belt.

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25
Q

What is a backarc basin?

A
  • in ocean

- forms behind the region of uplift/volcanics due to down warping of the crust

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26
Q

What is a foreland basin?

A
  • continents

- forms behind the region of uplift/volcanics due to downwarping of the crust

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27
Q

What is the typical state of the backarc/foreland basin? Why?

A
  • typically flooded by ocean water

- because it sinks due to the force of pressure of things colliding (pressure of mountain building)

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28
Q

What is flysch?

A

Coarser sediments flushed in due to earthquakes. Volcanic ash deposited due to volcanic coruptions

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29
Q

Where is flush most commonly accumulated?

A

forleland basins typically fill geologically quickly, with flesh being replaced by sediments derived from coast

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30
Q

What is a clastic wedge?

A

when flysch is accumulated from deltas, beaches, etc.

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31
Q

As long as___continues, the arc will remain active.

A

subduction

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32
Q

Why are their marine fossils on top of Rocky Mountains?

A

Island arcs can be pushed up onto the continent

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33
Q

Continents can become suture together after colliding, true or false?

A

true

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34
Q

What causes intense heat and pressure resulting in metamorphosis of colliding rocks?

A

continents becoming sutured together after colliding

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35
Q

What is it called if draining of eroded sediments transported by rivers are onto a continent

A

foreland basin

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36
Q

What happens if eroded sediments drawing into ocean?

A

stable margin

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37
Q

What is isostatic rebound?

A

mountain height balanced against mountain roots

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38
Q

What are the 3 main types of rocks?

A

1) igneous
2) metamorphic
3) sedimentary

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39
Q

How do each of the three main types of rocks form?

A

1) Igneous: formed from volcanic things
2) metamorphic: any rock that has been heated, changed, pressure, but no melting
3) Sedimentary: pieces of preexisting rock

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40
Q

What are all rocks made of?

A

minerals

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41
Q

what is a mineral?

A

a naturally occurring chemical compound usually of crystalline form and biogenic with a specific chemical composition

42
Q

Rocks are___of minerals

A

aggregates

43
Q

What are the 4 mineral properties?

A

1) Hardness: chemical bond strength
2) Density: mass per volume; atomic weights of atoms; packing
3) Fracture/Cleavage: bonding creates lanes of weakness; how it breaks
4) Crystal Habit: arrangement of atoms and their bonds with one another form a unique crystal structure

44
Q

What is pyrite?

A

fools gold

45
Q

What are the 5 mineral types?

A

1) silicates: olivine, quartz
2) carbonate minerals: calcium carbonate
3) sulfate minerals: sulfate ion and typically associated with deposits related to evaporation
4) oxides: O2 union bonds with a metal
5) native elements: those found in nature in an uncombined or pure form

46
Q

What are igneous rocks?

A

1) composition: felsic, mafic

2) grain size: crystals that have cooled inside of it; a direct reflection of the rate at which the rock fooled

47
Q

What are igneous rocks classified by?

A

composition and grain size

48
Q

What are granite and rhylotie?

A

felsic

49
Q

What are basalt and gabbros?

A

mafic

50
Q

When are rocks fine grained, when are rocks large grained?

A
  • rapid

- slow

51
Q

Describe the cooling or plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks.

A

cool slowly and form large visible crystals (cools from magma)

52
Q

Describe the cooling of volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks?

A

cool quickly and form microscopic crystals (from lava)

53
Q

What can indicate the source of igneous rocks?

A

chemical composition

54
Q

What are rocks from magma derived from the mantle called? (high in Mg and Fe – metals)

A

mafic

55
Q

What are rocks that undergo mixing with continent called? (high in Si and Al)

A

felsic

56
Q

Where do you typically find Felsic rocks?

A

continents

57
Q

What is he principle of original horizontality?

A
  • all layers are deposited horizontally

- if not horizontal, something happened to them after they were deposited

58
Q

What type of rock is formed by heat and pressure?

A

metamorphic

59
Q

Why is gneiss (a metamorphic rock) resistant?

A

because it contains quartz

60
Q

How do metamorphic rocks form?

A
  • Form by alteration of other rocks at temps and pressures greater than at Earth’s surface.
61
Q

Where do metamorphic rocks typically form?

A

convergent boundaries

62
Q

Metamorphic forces form from___rock – igneous or sedimentary in origin.

A

parent

63
Q

What does the degree of change in the parent rock depend on?

A

Degree of change in parent rock depends on type and intensity of metamorphic pressure involved

  • heat
  • pressure
  • chemical fluids
64
Q

What is the process in which shale forms gneiss?

A

Shale –> Slate –> Phyllite –> Schist –> Gneiss (most heat and pressure)

65
Q

Metamorphosis: ___Grade to ___Grade

A

Low grade to high grade

66
Q

What is regional metamorphism?

A

Responsible for most metamorphic rocks and is the result of mountain building at convergent boundaries.

67
Q

What is Grade:

A

level of temp and pressure of metamorphism

68
Q

What is foliation?

A

Alignment of platy minerals caused by applied pressures.

69
Q

When is there an increase in metamorphic grade and foliation?

A

With increased temp and pressure e

70
Q

When does foliation only occur?

A

Foliation only occurs when specific platy minerals (shiny ones) makeup the composition.

71
Q

What are examples of non foliated metamorphic rocks?

A

Marble, Quartzite

72
Q

What is the parent rock of marble?

A

limestone

73
Q

What is the parent rock of quartzite?

A

sandstone

74
Q

What is the most common type of metamorphosis?

A

regional

75
Q

What is contact metamorphism?

A

Igneous intrusion “bakes” surrounding rock

76
Q

What is sill?

A

when igneous rock moves along a horizontal plane

77
Q

What is hydrothermal metamorphism?

A

Results from percolation of hot watery fluids (orange streaks)

  • hot things rise through planes of weakness in walk
  • brittle
78
Q

What is burial metamorphism?

A

similar to regional metamorphism; compression and burial

79
Q

What marble is famous for sculpting because it is so pure (not former reefs)?

A

marble formed from the collision of the paratethys and tethysocean plates

80
Q

What do sedimentary rocks form from?

A

accumulate and lithification of previously existing rock/organic matter

81
Q

Why do sedimentary rocks naturally form horizontal beds called strata?

A

Because they form by deposition

82
Q

What dies division of sedimentary rocks reflect?

A

type of sediment

83
Q

What are the 3 types of sedimentary rocks?

A

1) siliclastic/detrital
2) biological
3) chemical

84
Q

What are sediments produced by?

A
  • weathering, erosion of other rocks
  • crystals precipitated from seawater
  • skeletal debris from organisms
85
Q

What are siliciclastic/detrital sedimentary rocks?

A

sedimentary rocks composed of clasts of silicate minerals

86
Q

What is the basic siliciclastic cycle?

A

1) uplift, causing erosion
2) transport through wind and/or water to a centre of deposition
3) burial, resulting in lithification

87
Q

What is burial and lithification often due to?

A

cementation via dissolved minerals in groundwater

88
Q

What are three things that increase as distance from a sedimentary source rock does?

A

1) rounding (from abrasion)
2) sorting (steady energy = even particle size)
3) maturity (quartz level)

89
Q

What are siliciclastic rocks classified based on?

A

grain size and shape

90
Q

What are conglomerate (breccia), sandstone, siltstone and claystone (both mudstone) all examples of?

A

siliciclastic sedimentary rocks

91
Q

Where are mudstones and shales found?

A

lakes, oceans

92
Q

Where are sandstones found?

A

rivers

93
Q

Where are conglomerates found?

A

Evaporation of seawater mountains

94
Q

Why is gypsum (evaporite) found in SK? What does gypsum form from?

A

because SK was once covered by sea and gypsum is a cretaceous mineral precipitated from seawater

95
Q

Which type of sedimentary rocks are ready formed and dissolved?

A

evaporites

96
Q

What are biological sedimentary rocks?

A

any sedimentary rock that is made from biological material (either transported or in place)

97
Q

What is coal?

A
  • biological sedimentary rock
  • accumulation of dead plants close to a body of water, compressed and compacted and undergoes alteration –> just compressed carbon)
98
Q

What is limestone?

A
  • biological sedimentary rock
  • any organism that secrets calcium carbonates ]clams, snails, corals, etc.] hard-shelled organisms - what produces limestone)
99
Q

Where do limestones typically form?

A

in warm, shallow waters

100
Q

What are limestones commonly deposited as?

A

1) Fossil reef communities
2) accumulations of shelled mollusks (bioclastic limestone)
3) accumulations of microscopic organisms (chalks)

101
Q

Why are coral reefs found in shallow, low current water?

A

Because they need sunlight and some food brought to them, but not the crap kicked out of them. coral reefs feed off byproduct of algae when they photosynthesis, hence the need for sunlight (photosynthesis requires it).

102
Q

What are tindel stones?

A

remains of reef, colonized by crabs who burrowed

GEOL109 (18 decks)

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