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Biology Eduqas A Level > A2C3 - Chapter 16 (opt C) - Neurobiology > Flashcards

A2C3 - Chapter 16 (opt C) - Neurobiology Flashcards

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1
Q

Location and function of the cerebrum.

A

Middle upper left.
Responsible for all voluntary behaviour, memory, personality, learning and reasoning.

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2
Q

Identify the location and function of the cerebellum.

A

Controls muscle coordination and non-voluntary movement (eg: balance and posture)

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3
Q

Location and function of hypothalamus.

A

Control centre for autonomic nervous system.

Responsible for hormone production, regulation of the water potential of bodily fluids and control of behavioural patterns.

This links the nervous and endocrine systems.

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4
Q

Location and function of medulla oblongata.

A

Regulates autonomic activities such as ventilation, heart rate and peristalsis.

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5
Q

What are meninges?

A

Three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.

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6
Q

What is inflammation of the meninges known as?

A

Meningitis

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7
Q

Name the fluid that fills the four ventricles of the brain. What is its function?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid
Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the neurones.

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8
Q

Describe the three main regions of the brain.

A

Hindbrain = Medulla oblongata and cerebrum.
Midbrain = nerve fibres that connect forebrain and midbrain.
Forebrain = hypothalamus, thalamus and cerebrum.

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9
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

Small structure located above the brainstem.
Sends and recieves information to and from the cerebral cortex.

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10
Q

What is the role of the hippocampus?

A

It is involved in learning, memory, reasoning and personality.

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11
Q

What do the thalamus, hypothalamus and hippocampus constitute?

A

The limbic system.

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12
Q

Name the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

A

Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Act antagonistically to regulate response effects. eg: heart rate.

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13
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

Branch of the motor nervous system.
Carries nerve impulses to muscles.
Controls involuntary activities.

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14
Q

Describe the sympathetic nervous system.

A

Usually stimulates effectors (coordinates fight or flight response)
Neurotransmitter noradrenaline.
Ganglia are located near the CNS.

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15
Q

Describe the parasympathetic system.

A

Usually inhibits effectors (coordinates rest and digest response)
Neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
Ganglia located far from CNS.

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16
Q

Describe the structure of the cerebrum.

A

Largest region of the brain, constituting of two hemispheres.
Hemispheres connected by bundle of nerve fibres, the corpus callosum.
Thin outer covering, the cerebral cortex.

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17
Q

Describe the structure and function of the cerebral cortex.

A

Highly folded layer of nerve cell bodies (grey matter)
Responsible for most conscious thoughts and actions.

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18
Q

Compare grey and white matter.

A

Grey matter = darker tissue of the CNS and consists of relay and motor neurone cell bodies.
White matter = lighter tissue of the CNS which surrounds grey matter and consists of myelinated axons.

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19
Q

Name the four cerebral lobes and state their function.

A

Frontal lobe = involved in planning, decision making, problem solving, emotions, speech and movement.

Temporal lobe = language, learning and memory.

Occipital lobe = visual processing centre

Parietal lobe = processes sensory informaton and is concerned with orientation, movement, sensation and aspects of memory and recognition.

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20
Q

Name the three divisions of the cerebral cortex.

A

Sensory areas
Motor areas
Association areas

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21
Q

What are the sensory areas?

A

Areas of the brain that recieve and process sensory information from receptors in the body.

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22
Q

What are motor areas?

A

Areas of the brain involved in the control of voluntary movements.

They send nerve impulses to effectors on the oppostite side of the body via motor neurones.

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23
Q

What are association areas?

A

Regions the recieve information from sensory areas and relate this information to previous experiences.

They initiate responses, sending impulses to the appropriate motor areas.

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24
Q

Describe the relationship between the nerve supply of a body part and the size of the corresponding area of the cerebrum.

A

Positive relationship.

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25
How can the relationship between the nerve supply of a body part and the size of the relevant area of the cerebrum be represented?
Using sensory and motor homunculi.
26
Describe the sensory homunculus.
Represents the primary somatosensory cortex. Highly innervated areas such as the tongue, lips and fingertips are depicted in an exaggerated fashion.
27
Describe the motor homunculus.
Represents the primary motor cortex. Highly innervated areas such as the muscles of the hands and face are depicted in an exaggerated fashion.
28
Name the two main areas for speech in the brain.
Wernicke's area. Broca's area.
29
What division of the cerebral cortex includes Broca's area?
Motor area.
30
What is Broca's area?
The area of the cerebrum that as motor control over speech production.
31
What division of the cerebral cortex includes Wernicke's area?
Association area.
32
What is the function of wernicke's area.
Comprehension of written and spoken language.
33
How are Broca's area and Wernicke's area linked.
Linked by the nerve fibre bundle arcuate fasciculus.
34
Name 5 brain imaging techniques.
MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI - functional MRI PET - Positron emission tomagraphy CT - Computerised tomagraphy EEG - Electroencephalography
35
How does an MRI scan work? (how and what does it produce)
Uses a powerful magnetic field to cause protons from H atoms in water molecules to align. Radio waves then knock protons out of alignment. Radio waves turned off. Protons realign and emit radiation to recievers. Signals used to produce a 3D cross-sectional image.
36
Describe the advantage of using an MRI scan?
High resolution distinguishes tissues and provides more detail that ultrasound of CT scans.
37
How does an fMRI scan work? (how and what does it show)
Uses radio waves and a magnetic field to assess brain function through the visualisation of blood flow in brain capillaries. Shows where most aerobic respiration occurs and changes in brain activity.
38
How does PET scan work?
A radioactve isotope (eg: carbon) with a short half-life is injected and used by the body to synthesise molecules. Isotope decays and emits gamma radiation to a detector. Active areas show higher radioactivity.
39
What is a CT scan?
A medical imaging technique that uses specialised X-ray equipment and computer software to create detailed images of internal organs.
40
How does an EEG scan work?
Electrodes attached to scalp detect electrical signals between neurones. Records changes in the electrical activity of different regions of the brain.
41
What is neuroplasticity?
The ability of the brain to form new connections and pathways in response to environmental changes, disease, or injury.
42
When does neuroplasticity occur?
Neuroplasticity takes place throughout an organism's life.
43
What is developmental plasticity?
The formation of new connections and pathways in the brain during development as a result of environmental changes and sensory stimulation.
44
What stage of development is known as the critical period?
Early childhood.
45
Describe synaptic pruning.
The elimination of unused synapses in the brain during development.
46
When does mass 'pruning back' of synapses usually occur?
Adolescence
47
Describe the importance of the critical period, using language development as an example.
At around 7 months, majority of babies produce speech-like sounds. Obvious deficits in early vocalisations of congenitally deaf infants. Evidence that children raised in a completely language deprived environment never learn more than basic communication.
48
Define epigenetics.
The study of changes in gene expression that are not due to alterations in the nucleotide base sequence of DNA.
49
Describe the link between epigenetics and mental illness.
Altered gene expression in childhood (eg: due to abuse) may increase the risk of an individual developing a mental illness or addiction later in life.
50
What is cortisol?
A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress.
51
Compare the average concentration of cortisol in adults who experienced traumatic childhoods and those who did not.
Adults who have experienced traumatic childhoods tend to have higher concentrations of cortisol.
52
Describe the link between cortisol concentration and mental illness.
Higher concentration of cortisol, higher background stress levels, greater vulnerability to mental illness.
53
What type of mechanism controls the production of cortisol?
Negative feedback mechanism.
54
Name the structure in the brain that controls the production of cortisol.
Hippocampus
55
Describe the process by which cortisol is secreted.
Hippocampus sends impulses to hypothalamus in response to stress. Hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin. Hormones stimulate pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotrophin into the blood. Adrenal glands take up hormone and secrete cortisol.
56
Describe the negative feedback mechanism by which overproduction of cortisol is inhibited.
Cortisol binds to gluocorticoid receptors on the hippocampus Hippocampus sends nerve impulses to the hypothalamus, inhibiting the secretion of corticotrophin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin. This prevents the further release of cortisol.
57
Why is the negative feedback system by which cortisol is produced important?
It prevents chronic stress
58
What is an innate behaviour?
A behaviour that is inherent in an organism.
59
Give some examples of innate behaviours.
Reflex Kinesis Taxis
60
Define reflex.
Rapid, automatic response to a sensory stimulus by the body. Serves as a protective mechanism.
61
What is a kinesis?
A non-directional movement response to a stimulus in which the whole organism moves faster and changes direction. Eg: in repsonse to a dry environment, woodlice move faster and change direction more often.
62
What is a taxis?
A directional movement response to a stimulus, eg: woodlice move away from a light source.
63
What is a learned behaviour?
A permanent change in an organism's behaviour as a result of experience.
64
What is habituation?
Type of learned behaviour. Repitition of a non-harmful/non-beneficial stimulus desensitises an organism by reducing the release of neurotransmitter. The organism no longer responds.
65
Describe imprinting.
Type of learned behaviour that occurs early in development. Young animal attaches to the first large moving object it sees/hears/smells/touches. Reinforced by subsequent rewards such as food, warnth and protection.
66
What are associative behaviours?
Behaviours in which an organism associates a specific stimulus with a certain action or response.
67
State the two types of associative behaviours.
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
68
Describe classical and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning = the association of a natural stimulus with an artificial stimulus to induce the same response. Operant conditioning = the association of a behaviour with a reward or punishment.
69
What is latent learning?
A type of learning that occurs in the absence of external reinforcement, eg: learning information during the exploration of new surroundings.
70
What is insight learning?
A type of learning that occurs suddenly through the understanding of relationships between previously learned information.
71
Describe imitation.
Form of learning where an animal copies the behaviour of another animal. Enables the knowledge and behavioural traits to be passed down from generation to generation.
72
Give an example of imitation behaviour.
Some populations of chimpanzees use sticks to crack nuts whereas other populations use stones.
73
What do social behavious rely on?
Communication between animals.
74
What is a fixed action pattern (FAP)?
An instinctive behavioural sequence in response to a sign stimulus.
75
Give an example of a fixed action pattern (FAP).
Begging in gull chicks in response to the sight of the red spot on the parents' beak.
76
What does the response of an individual to a sign stimulus depend on?
Its motivational state.
77
Give some examples of organisms that live in colonies.
Social insects such as bees, ants and termites.
78
What is a caste?
A group of closely related individuals within a social insect colony with a specific role, eg: finding food or defenfing the colony.
79
Give some examples of castes in a honeybee colony.
Queen = single fertile female Workers = thousands of sterile females Drones = hundreds of fertile males
80
How do individuals within a colony communicate?
Touch Pheromones Visual displays (such as dances)
81
Describe how worker bees communicate the position of a nectar source.
Perform dances in the hive; - If the source is less than 70m from the hive, round dance, doesn't indicate direction. - Source more than 70m from the hive, waggle dance, indicates distance and direction.
82
What is a dominance heirarchy?
A type of social hierarchy in which higher-ranking members dominate over lower ranking individuals.
83
What types of species do dominance hierarchies exist in?
Vertebrates that can recognise one another and have the ability to learn, eg: hens, red deer.
84
What is an advantage of a dominance hierarchy?
Reduces individual aggression related to feeding, selecting mates and choosing breeding sites. Distribution of resources ensure that the fittest individuals survive.
85
What is courtship?
A set of innate behaviours exhibited by an animal to attract mates.
86
Many species exhibit sexual dimorphism. What does this mean?
There are differences in appearance between two sexes of the same species.
87
What is sexual selection?
Mode of natural selection that arises through the preference of one gender for particular characteristics in the other gender. Leads to more conspicuous characteristics.
88
Describe the two theories for the mechanism behind sexual selection.
Intra-sexual selection = females choose between male mates. Inter-sexual selection = males compete for sexual access to females.

Biology Eduqas A Level (14 decks)

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