All Words Flashcards
(436 cards)
1
Q
Adaptations
A
In evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations. (page 13)
2
Q
Behaviorism
A
A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing observable behavior. (page 15)
3
Q
Cognitive neuroscience
A
The study of the neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning, perception, language, and memory. (page 17)
4
Q
Critical thinking
A
Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported evidence. (page 5)
5
Q
Culture
A
The beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment. (page 10)
6
Q
Evolutionary theory
A
A theory presented by the naturalist Charles Darwin; it views the history of a species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics, of mental activity, and of behavior. (page 13)
7
Q
Functionalism
A
An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior. (page 13)
8
Q
Gestalt theory
A
A theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its constituent elements. (page 15)
9
Q
Humanistic psychology
A
This approach focuses on the basic goodness of people and how they become happier and more fulfilled. (page 16)
10
Q
Introspection
A
A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts. (page 12)
11
Q
Mind/body problem
A
A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience? (page 10)
12
Q
Natural selection
A
In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not. (page 13)
13
Q
Nature/nurture debate
A
The arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture. (page 10)
14
Q
Psychoanalysis
A
A method developed by Sigmund Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed. (page 14)
15
Q
Psychological science
A
The study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior. (page 4)
16
Q
Stream of consciousness
A
A phrase coined by William James to describe each person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts. (page 12)
17
Q
Structuralism
A
An approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components. (page 12)
18
Q
Unconscious
A
The place where mental processes operate below the level of conscious awareness. (page 14)
19
Q
Term
A
Description
20
Q
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A
The neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; it is also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming. (page 78)
21
Q
Action potential
A
The electrical signal that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons. (page 72)
22
Q
All-or-none principle
A
The principle that when a neuron fires, it fires with the same potency each time; a neuron either fires or not – it cannot partially fire, although the frequency of firing can vary. (page 75)
23
Q
Amygdala
A
A brain structure that serves a vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information. (page 86)
24
Q
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
A
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the body’s glands and internal organs. (page 98)
25
Axon
A long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is conducted from the cell body to the terminal buttons. (page 71)
26
Basal ganglia
A system of subcortical structures that are important for the planning and production of movement. (page 87)
27
Brain stem
An extension of the spinal cord; it houses structures that control functions associated with survival, such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm. (page 84)
28
Broca's area
A small portion of the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language. (page 82)
29
Cell body
The site in the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated. (page 71)
30
Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and the spinal cord. (page 70)
31
Cerebellum
A large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brain stem; it is essential for coordinated movement and balance. (page 84)
32
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors. (page 87)
33
Chromosomes
Structures within the cell body that are made up of DNA, segments of which comprise individual genes. (page 106)
34
Corpus callosum
A massive bridge of millions of axons that connects the hemispheres and allows information to flow between them. (page 87)
35
Dendrites
Branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons. (page 71)
36
Dizygotic twins
Also called fraternal twins; twin siblings that result from two separately fertilized eggs and therefore are no more similar genetically than non-twin siblings. (page 111)
37
Dominant gene
A gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present. (page 108)
38
Dopamine
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in motivation, reward, and motor control over voluntary movement. (page 79)
39
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
A device that measures electrical activity in the brain. (page 82)
40
Endocrine system
A communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions. (page 99)
41
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters involved in natural pain reduction and reward. (page 80)
42
Frontal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex -- at the front of the brain -- important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex. (page 84)
43
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
An imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels. (page 84)
44
GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid; the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system. (page 80)
45
Gene expression
Whether a particular gene is turned on or off. (page 106)
46
Genes
The units of heredity that help determine the characteristics of an organism. (page 106)
47
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an organism, determined at the moment of conception. (page 108)
48
Glutamate
The primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system. (page 80)
49
Gonads
The main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior: in males, the testes; in females, the ovaries. (page 100)
50
Heredity
Transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes. (page 113)
51
Heritability
A statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in a trait within a population is due to genetics. (page 113)
52
Hippocampus
A brain structure that is associated with the formation of memories. (page 86)
53
Hormones
Chemical substances, released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; the tissues are subsequently influenced by the hormones. (page 99)
54
Hypothalamus
A brain structure that is involved in the regulation of bodily functions, including body temperature, body rhythms, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; it also influences our basic motivated behaviors. (page 86)
55
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
A method of brain imaging that uses a powerful magnetic field to produce high-quality images of the brain. (page 83)
56
Monozygotic twins
Also called identical twins; twin siblings that result from one zygote splitting in two and therefore share the same genes. (page 111)
57
Myelin sheath
A fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon. (page 74)
58
Neurons
The basic units of the nervous system; cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system. They operate through electrical impulses, communicate with other neurons through chemical signals, and form neural networks. (page 70)
59
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another. (page 75)
60
Nodes of Ranvier
Small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials take place. (page 74)
61
Norepinephrine
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and attention. (page 79)
62
Occipital lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex -- at the back of the brain -- important for vision. (page 88)
63
Parasympathetic division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state. (page 99)
64
Parietal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex -- in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes -- important for the sense of touch and for attention to the environment. (page 88)
65
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
All nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. (page 70)
66
Phenotype
Observable physical characteristics, which result from both genetic and environmental influences. (page 108)
67
Pituitary gland
A gland located at the base of the hypothalamus; it sends hormonal signals to other endocrine glands, controlling their release of hormones. (page 99)
68
Plasticity
A property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience or injury. (page 101)
69
Positron emission tomography (PET)
A method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream. (page 83)
70
Prefrontal cortex
The frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality. (page 90)
71
Receptors
In neurons, specialized protein molecules on the postsynaptic membrane; neurotransmitters bind to these molecules after passing across the synapse. (page 76)
72
Recessive gene
A gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent. (page 108)
73
Resting membrane potential
The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active. (page 72)
74
Reuptake
The process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity. (page 77)
75
Serotonin
A monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming. (page 79)
76
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin, muscles, and joints. (page 97)
77
Split brain
A condition that occurs when the corpus callosum is surgically cut and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other. (page 92)
78
Sympathetic division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action. (page 98)
79
Synapse
The gap between the terminal buttons of a "sending" neuron and the dendrites of a "receiving" neuron; the site at which chemical communication occurs between neurons. (page 72)
80
Temporal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex -- below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes -- important for processing auditory information, for memory, and for object and face perception. (page 90)
81
Terminal buttons
At the ends of axons, small nodules that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse. (page 72)
82
Thalamus
The gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex. (page 86)
83
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
The use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions. (page 84)
84
Term
Description
85
Activation-synthesis theory
A theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories. (page 140)
86
Addiction
Drug use that remains compulsive despite its negative consequences. (page 148)
87
Change blindness
A failure to notice large changes in one's environment. (page 129)
88
Circadian rhythms
Biological patterns that occur at regular intervals as a function of time of day. (page 133)
89
Consciousness
One's subjective experience of the world, resulting from brain activity. (page 122)
90
Dreams
Products of an altered state of consciousness in which images and fantasies are confused with reality. (page 139)
91
Hypnosis
A social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action. (page 143)
92
Insomnia
A disorder characterized by an inability to sleep that causes significant problems in daily living. (page 135)
93
Meditation
A mental procedure that focuses attention on an external object or on a sense of awareness. (page 145)
94
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder in which people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, sometimes going limp and collapsing. (page 136)
95
Obstructive sleep apnea
A disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his or her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night. (page 136)
96
REM sleep
The stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, paralysis of motor systems, and dreaming. (page 135)
97
Subliminal perception
The processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness. (page 132)
98
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Impairments in mental functioning caused by a blow to or very sharp movement of the head. (page 124)
99
Term
Description
100
Absolute threshold
The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation. (page 167)
101
Audition
Hearing; the sense of sound perception. (page 188)
102
Binocular depth cues
Cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes. (page 182)
103
Binocular disparity
A depth cue; because of the distance between the two eyes, each eye receives a slightly different retinal image. (page 182)
104
Bottom-up processing
Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus. (page 164)
105
Cones
Retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light and result in color perception. (page 173)
106
Convergence
A cue of binocular depth perception; when a person views a nearby object, the eye muscles turn the eyes inward. (page 183)
107
Difference threshold
The minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference between two stimuli. (page 168)
108
Eardrum
A thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate. (page 189)
109
Fovea
The center of the retina, where cones are densely packed. (page 173)
110
Gustation
The sense of taste. (page 194)
111
Haptic sense
The sense of touch. (page 199)
112
Kinesthetic sense
Perception of the positions in space and movements of our bodies and our limbs. (page 199)
113
Monocular depth cues
Cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone. (page 182)
114
Object constancy
Correctly perceiving objects as constant in their shape, size, color, and lightness, despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception. (page 186)
115
Olfaction
The sense of smell. (page 197)
116
Olfactory bulb
The brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes. (page 198)
117
Olfactory epithelium
A thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell. (page 197)
118
Perception
The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals. (page 164)
119
Place coding
A mechanism for encoding high-frequency auditory stimuli in which the frequency of the sound wave is encoded by the location of the hair cells along the basilar membrane. (page 192)
120
Retina
The thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball; it contains the sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals. (page 173)
121
Rods
Retinal cells that respond to low levels of light and result in black-and-white perception. (page 173)
122
Sensation
The detection of external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain. (page 164)
123
Sensory adaptation
A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation. (page 169)
124
Signal detection theory (SDT)
A theory of perception based on the idea that the detection of a stimulus requires a judgment -- it is not an all-or-nothing process. (page 168)
125
Sound wave
A pattern of changes in air pressure during a period of time; it produces the percept of a sound. (page 188)
126
Taste buds
Sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste. (page 194)
127
Temporal coding
A mechanism for encoding low-frequency auditory stimuli in which the firing rates of cochlear hair cells match the frequency of the sound wave. (page 192)
128
Top-down processing
How knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the interpretation of sensory information. (page 164)
129
Transduction
The process by which sensory stimuli are converted to signals the brain can interpret. (page 165)
130
Vestibular sense
Perception of balance determined by receptors in the inner ear. (page 189)
131
Term
Description
132
Acquisition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. (page 214)
133
Associative learning
Linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together. (page 209)
134
Behavior modification
The use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones. (page 233)
135
Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response. (page 210)
136
Cognitive map
A visual/spatial mental representation of an environment. (page 236)
137
Conditioned response (CR)
A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned. (page 212)
138
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place. (page 212)
139
Continuous reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. (page 230)
140
Extinction
A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus. (page 216)
141
Fear conditioning
A type of classical conditioning that turns neutral stimuli into feared stimuli. (page 221)
142
Habituation
A decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. (page 209)
143
Latent learning
Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement. (page 237)
144
Law of effect
Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to occur again. (page 225)
145
Learning
A relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience. (page 208)
146
Mirror neurons
Neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action. (page 244)
147
Modeling
The imitation of observed behavior. (page 239)
148
Negative punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring. (page 231)
149
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated. (page 229)
150
Nonassociative learning
Responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event. (page 209)
151
Observational learning
Acquiring or changing a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior. (page 209)
152
Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future. (page 224)
153
Partial reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently. (page 230)
154
Partial-reinforcement extinction effect
The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement. (page 231)
155
Phobia
An acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation. (page 221)
156
Positive punishment
The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring. (page 231)
157
Positive reinforcement
The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated. (page 229)
158
Reinforcer
A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. (page 226)
159
Rescorla-Wagner model
A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that learning is determined by the extent to which a US is unexpected or surprising. (page 218)
160
Sensitization
An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus. (page 210)
161
Shaping
A process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior. (page 227)
162
Spontaneous recovery
A process in which a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus. (page 216)
163
Stimulus discrimination
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus. (page 215)
164
Stimulus generalization
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response. (page 215)
165
Unconditioned response (UR)
A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex. (page 212)
166
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning. (page 212)
167
Vicarious learning
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action. (page 241)
168
Term
Description
169
Absentmindedness
The inattentive or shallow encoding of events. (page 275)
170
Amnesia
A deficit in long-term memory -- resulting from disease, brain injury, or psychological trauma -- in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information. (page 276)
171
Anterograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories. (page 276)
172
Blocking
The temporary inability to remember something. (page 274)
173
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember. (page 259)
174
Consolidation
The neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory. (page 250)
175
Cryptomnesia
A type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source. (page 280)
176
Declarative memory
The cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared. (page 271)
177
Encoding
The processing of information so that it can be stored. (page 250)
178
Encoding specificity principle
The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience. (page 266)
179
Episodic memory
Memory for one's personal past experiences. (page 272)
180
Explicit memory
The system underlying conscious memories. (page 271)
181
Flashbulb memories
Vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event. (page 279)
182
Implicit memory
The system underlying unconscious memories. (page 271)
183
Long-term memory
The relatively permanent storage of information. (page 260)
184
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons. (page 252)
185
Memory
The nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge. (page 250)
186
Memory bias
The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes. (page 278)
187
Mnemonics
Learning aids or strategies that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues. (page 267)
188
Persistence
The continual recurrence of unwanted memories. (page 277)
189
Proactive interference
Interference that occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information. (page 274)
190
Procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills, habits, and other behaviors. (page 272)
191
Prospective memory
Remembering to do something at some future time. (page 267)
192
Reconsolidation
Neural processes involved when memories are recalled and then stored again for retrieval. (page 250)
193
Retrieval
The act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed. (page 250)
194
Retrieval cue
Any stimulus that increases memory recall. (page 266)
195
Retroactive interference
Interference that occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information. (page 274)
196
Retrograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose past memories, such as memories for events, facts, people, or even personal information. (page 276)
197
Schemas
Cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information. (page 263)
198
Semantic memory
Memory for knowledge of facts independent of personal experience. (page 272)
199
Sensory memory
A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form. (page 256)
200
Serial position effect
The idea that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle. (page 260)
201
Short-term memory
A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness. (page 258)
202
Source amnesia
A type of misattribution that occurs when a person has a memory for an event but cannot remember where he or she encountered the information. (page 280)
203
Source misattribution
Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory. (page 280)
204
Storage
The retention of encoded representations. (page 250)
205
Suggestibility
The development of biased memories from misleading information. (page 281)
206
Working memory
An active processing system that keeps different types of information available for current use. (page 258)
207
Term
Description
208
Affective forecasting
The tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future. (page 301)
209
Analogical representations
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects. (page 290)
210
Anchoring
The tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind. (page 298)
211
Aphasia
A language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production. (page 312)
212
Availability heuristic
Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind. (page 299)
213
Cognition
The mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking. (page 290)
214
Concept
A category, or class, of related items; it consists of mental representations of those items. (page 291)
215
Crystallized intelligence
Intelligence that reflects both the knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge. (page 322)
216
Decision making
Attempting to select the best alternative from among several options. (page 297)
217
Deep structure
In language, the implicit meanings of sentences. (page 316)
218
Emotional intelligence (EI)
A form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action. (page 324)
219
Exemplar model
A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership. (page 292)
220
Fluid intelligence
Intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, particularly in novel or complex circumstances. (page 322)
221
Framing
In decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative. (page 299)
222
Functional fixedness
In problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects. (page 305)
223
General intelligence (g)
The idea that one general factor underlies intelligence. (page 322)
224
Heuristics
Shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions. (page 297)
225
Insight
(1) The sudden realization of a solution to a problem. (2) The goal of psychoanalysis; a client's awareness of his own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect daily functioning. (page 306)
226
Intelligence
The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges. (page 319)
227
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
An index of intelligence computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100. (page 321)
228
Language
A system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules. (page 310)
229
Linguistic relativity theory
The claim that language determines thought. (page 313)
230
Mental age
An assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age. (page 321)
231
Mental sets
Problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. (page 304)
232
Morphemes
The smallest language units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes. (page 310)
233
Phonemes
The basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language. (page 311)
234
Phonics
A method of teaching reading in English that focuses on the association between letters and their phonemes. (page 318)
235
Problem solving
Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal. (page 297)
236
Prototype model
A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example -- a prototype -- for that category. (page 291)
237
Representativeness heuristic
Placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category. (page 299)
238
Restructuring
A new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution. (page 304)
239
Script
A schema that directs behavior over time within a situation. (page 295)
240
Somatic markers
Bodily reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an action's consequences. (page 301)
241
Stereotypes
Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups. (page 294)
242
Stereotype threat
Apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group. (page 331)
243
Surface structure
In language, the sound and order of words. (page 316)
244
Symbolic representations
Abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas. (page 290)
245
Telegraphic speech
The tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning. (page 315)
246
Thinking
The mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world. (page 290)
247
Wernicke's area
An area of the left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension. (page 312)
248
Whole language
A method of teaching reading in English that emphasizes learning the meanings of words and understanding how words are connected in sentences. (page 318)
249
Term
Description
250
Accommodation
The process by which a new scheme is created or an existing scheme is drastically altered to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the scheme. (page 354)
251
Assimilation
The process by which new information is placed into an existing scheme. (page 354)
252
Attachment
A strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances. (page 347)
253
Concrete operational stage
The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and they are no longer fooled by appearances. (page 355)
254
Conventional level
Middle stage of moral development; at this level, strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others determine what is moral. (page 362)
255
Developmental psychology
The study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior. (page 338)
256
Dynamic systems theory
The view that development is a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts. (page 343)
257
Formal operational stage
The final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; in this stage, people can think abstractly, and they can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive logic. (page 356)
258
Gender identity
One's sense of being male or female. (page 366)
259
Gender role
A behavior that is typically associated with being male or female. (page 366)
260
Infantile amnesia
The inability to remember events from early childhood. (page 346)
261
Insecure attachment
The attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors. (page 351)
262
Object permanence
The understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen. (page 354)
263
Postconventional level
Highest stage of moral development; at this level, decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of all life. (page 362)
264
Preconventional level
Earliest level of moral development; at this level, self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral. (page 362)
265
Preoperational stage
The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic. (page 355)
266
Puberty
The beginning of adolescence, marked by the onset of sexual maturity and thus the ability to reproduce. (page 363)
267
Secure attachment
The attachment style for a majority of infants; the infant is confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and is readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress. (page 350)
268
Sensorimotor stage
The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, infants acquire information about the world through their senses and motor skills. Reflexive responses develop into more deliberate actions through the development and refinement of schemes. (page 354)
269
Social intuitionist model
The idea that moral judgments reflect people's initial and automatic emotional responses. (page 362)
270
Socioemotional selectivity theory
As people grow older, they view time as limited and therefore shift their focus to meaningful events, experiences, and goals. (page 376)
271
Synaptic pruning
The synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, whereas those that are not used decay and disappear. (page 339)
272
Teratogens
Agents that harm the embryo or fetus. (page 340)
273
Theory of mind
The ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior. (page 360)
274
Term
Description
275
Agoraphobia
An anxiety disorder marked by fear of being in situations in which escape may be difficult or impossible. (page 576)
276
Antisocial personality disorder (APD)
A personality disorder in which people engage in socially undesirable behavior, are hedonistic and impulsive, and lack empathy. (page 599)
277
Anxiety disorders
Psychological disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety in the absence of true danger. (page 574)
278
Assessment
In psychology, examination of a person's cognitive, behavioral, or emotional functioning to diagnose possible psychological disorders. (page 567)
279
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by restlessness, inattentiveness, and impulsivity. (page 608)
280
Autism spectrum disorder
A developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction, by impaired communication, and by restricted interests. (page 604)
281
Bipolar I disorder
A disorder characterized by extremely elevated moods during manic episodes and, frequently, depressive episodes as well. (page 583)
282
Bipolar II disorder
A disorder characterized by alternating periods of extremely depressed and mildly elevated moods. (page 583)
283
Borderline personality disorder
A personality disorder characterized by disturbances in identity, in affect, and in impulse control. (page 597)
284
Cognitive-behavioral approach
A diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of learned, maladaptive thoughts and beliefs. (page 570)
285
Delusions
False beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality. (page 590)
286
Diathesis-stress model
A diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event. (page 568)
287
Disorganized behavior
Acting in strange or unusual ways, including strange movement of limbs, bizarre speech, and inappropriate self-care, such as failing to dress properly or bathe. (page 592)
288
Disorganized speech
Speaking in an incoherent fashion that involves frequently changing topics and saying strange or inappropriate things. (page 591)
289
Dissociative disorders
Disorders that involve disruptions of identity, of memory, or of conscious awareness. (page 586)
290
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
The occurrence of two or more distinct identities in the same individual. (page 587)
291
Etiology
Factors that contribute to the development of a disorder. (page 562)
292
Family systems model
A diagnostic model that considers problems within an individual as indicating problems within the family. (page 570)
293
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
A diffuse state of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event. (page 575)
294
Hallucinations
False sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source. (page 591)
295
Learned helplessness
A cognitive model of depression in which people feel unable to control events in their lives. (page 582)
296
Major depressive disorder
A disorder characterized by severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities. (page 579)
297
Negative symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that are marked by deficits in functioning, such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement. (592)
298
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
A disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions. (page 577)
299
Panic disorder
An anxiety disorder that consists of sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror. (page 576)
300
Persistent depressive disorder
A form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder. (page 580)
301
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
A disorder that involves frequent nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks related to an earlier trauma. (page 579)
302
Psychopathology
Sickness or disorder of the mind; psychological disorder. (page 562)
303
Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)
A method that defines basic aspects of functioning and considers them across multiple levels of analysis, from genes to brain systems to behavior. (page 566)
304
Schizophrenia
A psychological disorder characterized by alterations in thoughts, in perceptions, or in consciousness, resulting in psychosis. (page 589)
305
Sociocultural model
A diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of the interaction between individuals and their cultures. (page 570)
306
Term
Description
307
Behavioral approach system (BAS)
The brain system involved in the pursuit of incentives or rewards. (page 531)
308
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
The brain system that is sensitive to punishment and therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain. (page 531)
309
Defense mechanisms
Unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety. (page 523)
310
Ego
In psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego. (page 523)
311
Five-factor theory
The idea that personality can be described using five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. (page 528)
312
Humanistic approaches
Approaches to studying personality that emphasize how people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding. (page 526)
313
Id
In psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle. (page 522)
314
Idiographic approaches
Person-centered approaches to assessing personality; they focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons. (page 541)
315
Interactionism
The theory that behavior is determined jointly by situations and underlying dispositions. (page 533)
316
Locus of control
Personal beliefs about how much control people have over outcomes in their lives. (page 525)
317
Nomothetic approaches
Approaches to assessing personality that focus on how common characteristics vary from person to person. (page 541)
318
Personality
A person's characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors. (page 516)
319
Personality trait
A pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that is relatively consistent over time and across situations. (page 516)
320
Projectivee measures
Personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli. (page 541)
321
Psychodynamic theory
The Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior. (page 522)
322
Psychosexual stages
According to Freud, developmental stages that correspond to distinct libidinal urges; progression through these stages profoundly affects personality. (page 524)
323
Reciprocal determinism
The theory that how personality is expressed can be explained by the interaction of environment, person factors, and behavior itself. (page 526)
324
Self-esteem
The evaluative aspect of the self-concept in which people feel worthy or unworthy. (page 549)
325
Self-serving bias
The tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors. (page 553)
326
Situationism
The theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits. (page 532)
327
Social comparison
The tendency for people to evaluate their own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with other people's. (page 553)
328
Sociometer
An internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection. (page 550)
329
Superego
In psychodynamic theory, the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct. (page 523)
330
Temperaments
Biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways. (page 519)
331
Trait approach
An approach to studying personality that focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions. (page 528)
332
Term
Description
333
Actor/observer discrepancy
People focus on situations to explain their own behavior while focusing on dispositions to explain other people's behavior. (page 498)
334
Aggression
Any behavior that involves the intention to harm another. (page 482)
335
Altruism
Providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so. (page 486)
336
Attitudes
People's evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas. (page 490)
337
Attributions
People's explanations for why events or actions occur. (page 497)
338
Bystander intervention effect
The failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present. (page 487)
339
Cognitive dissonance
An uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior. (page 493)
340
Companionate love
A strong commitment based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy. (page 507)
341
Compliance
The tendency to agree to do things requested by others. (page 478)
342
Conformity
The altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations. (page 475)
343
Deindividuation
A state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; this phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group. (page 474)
344
Discrimination
The inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice. (page 500)
345
Elaboration likelihood model
The idea that persuasive messages lead to attitude changes in either of two ways: via the central route or via the peripheral route. (page 495)
346
Explicit attitudes
Attitudes that a person can report. (page 491)
347
Fundamental attribution error
In explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors. (page 497)
348
Group polarization
The process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time. (page 474)
349
Groupthink
The tendency of a group to make a bad decision as a result of preserving the group and maintaining its cohesiveness; especially likely when the group is under intense pressure, is facing external threats, and is biased in a particular direction. (page 475)
350
Implicit attitudes
Attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level. (page 491)
351
Inclusive fitness
An explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival. (page 486)
352
Informational influence
The tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond. (page 476)
353
Ingroup favoritism
The tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup. (page 471)
354
Mere exposure effect
The idea that greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking for it. (page 490)
355
Modern racism
Subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs. (page 501)
356
Nonverbal behavior
The facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others. (page 496)
357
Normative influence
The tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group. (page 476)
358
Obedience
When a person follows the orders of a person of authority. (page 480)
359
Outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members. (page 471)
360
Passionate love
A state of intense longing and desire. (page 507)
361
Personal attributions
Explanations of people's behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts. (page 497)
362
Persuasion
The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message. (page 494)
363
Prejudice
Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype. (page 500)
364
Prosocial behaviors
Actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping. (page 485)
365
Situational attributions
Explanations of people's behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions. (page 497)
366
Social facilitation
The idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance. (page 473)
367
Social identity theory
The idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership. (page 471)
368
Social loafing
The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone. (page 475)
369
Social norms
Expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior. (page 476)
370
"what is beautiful is good" stereotype
The belief that attractive people are superior in most ways. (page 506)
371
Term
Description
372
Anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by excessive fear of becoming fat and therefore restricting energy intake to obtain a significantly low body weight. (page 439)
373
Binge-eating disorder
An eating disorder characterized by binge eating that causes significant distress. (page 440)
374
Biopsychosocial model
A model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness. (page 430)
375
Body mass index (BMI)
A ratio of body weight to height, used to measure obesity. (page 432)
376
Buffering hypothesis
The idea that other people can provide direct emotional support in helping individuals cope with stressful events. (page 461)
377
Bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by the alternation of dieting, binge eating, and purging (self-induced vomiting). (page 440)
378
Coping response
Any attempt made to avoid, escape from, or minimize a stressor. (page 447)
379
Emotion-focused coping
A type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor. (page 457)
380
Fight-or-flight response
The physiological preparedness of animals to deal with danger by either fighting or fleeing. (page 451)
381
General adaptation syndrome
A consistent pattern of responses to stress that consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. (page 450)
382
Health psychology
A field that integrates research on health and on psychology; it involves the application of psychological principles to promote health and well-being. (page 430)
383
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
A body system involved in stress responses. (page 449)
384
Immune system
The body's mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms, such as allergens, bacteria, and viruses. (page 452)
385
Lymphocytes
Specialized white blood cells that make up the immune system; the three types are B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells. (page 453)
386
Oxytocin
A hormone that is important for mothers in bonding to newborns and may encourage affiliation during social stress. (page 452)
387
Primary appraisals
Part of the coping process that involves making decisions about whether a stimulus is stressful, benign, or irrelevant. (page 457)
388
Problem-focused coping
A type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor. (page 457)
389
Secondary appraisals
Part of the coping process during which people evaluate their response options and choose coping behaviors. (page 457)
390
Stress
A type of response that typically involves an unpleasant state, such as anxiety or tension. (page 447)
391
Stressor
Something in the environment that is perceived as threatening or demanding and therefore produces stress. (page 447)
392
Tend-and-befriend response
Females' tendency to protect and care for their offspring and form social alliances rather than fight or flee in response to threat. (page 451)
393
Type A behavior pattern
A pattern of behavior characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility, restlessness, impatience with others, and inability to relax. (page 455)
394
Type B behavior pattern
A pattern of behavior characterized by noncompetitive, relaxed, easygoing, and accommodating behavior. (page 455)
395
Well-being
A positive state that includes striving for optimal health and life satisfaction. (page 430)
396
Term
Description
397
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Information about emotional stimuli is sent simultaneously to the cortex and the body and results in emotional experience and bodily reactions, respectively. (page 391)
398
Display rules
Rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable in given situations. (page 399)
399
Drive
A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need. (page 403)
400
Emotion
An immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts. (page 384)
401
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed. (page 405)
402
Homeostasis
The tendency for bodily functions to maintain equilibrium. (page 403)
403
Incentives
External objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors. (page 405)
404
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose. (page 405)
405
James-Lange theory of emotion
People perceive specific patterns of bodily responses, and as a result of that perception they feel emotion. (page 391)
406
Motivation
A process that energizes, guides, and maintains behavior toward a goal. (page 402)
407
Need
A state of biological or social deficiency. (page 402)
408
Need hierarchy
Maslow's arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs. (page 402)
409
Need to belong theory
The theory that the need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes. (page 410)
410
Primary emotions
Emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal (shared across cultures). (page 384)
411
Secondary emotions
Blends of primary emotions. (page 384)
412
Self-actualization
A state that is achieved when one's personal dreams and aspirations have been attained. (page 403)
413
Sexual response cycle
A four-stage pattern of physical and psychological responses during sexual activity. (page 418)
414
Sexual strategies theory
A theory that maintains that women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies because they faced different adaptive problems over the course of human history. The strategies used by each sex maximize the probability of passing along their genes to future generations. (page 420)
415
Two-factor theory of emotion
A label applied to physiological arousal results in the experience of an emotion. (page 392)
416
Yerkes-Dodson law
The psychological principle that performance on challenging tasks increases with arousal up to a moderate level. After that, additional arousal impairs performance. (page 404)
417
Term
Description
418
Anti-anxiety drugs
A class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of anxiety. (page 623)
419
Antidepressants
A class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of depression. (page 624)
420
Antipsychotics
A class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis. (page 624)
421
Applied behavioral analysis (ABA)
An intensive treatment for autism, based on operant conditioning. (page 657)
422
Behavior therapy
Treatment based on the premise that behavior is learned and therefore can be unlearned through the use of classical and operant conditioning. (page 618)
423
Biological therapies
Treatment of psychological disorders based on medical approaches to disease (what is wrong with the body) and to illness (what a person feels as a result). (616)
424
Client-centered therapy
An empathic approach to therapy; it encourages people to fulfill their individual potentials for personal growth through greater self-understanding. (page 621)
425
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
A therapy that incorporates techniques from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors. (page 620)
426
Cognitive restructuring
A therapy that strives to help clients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality. (page 619)
427
Cognitive therapy
Treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions; treatment strategies attempt to modify these thought patterns. (page 619)
428
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
A form of therapy used to treat borderline personality disorder that combines elements of the behavioral and cognitive treatments with a mindfulness approach based on Eastern meditative practices. (page 651)
429
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A procedure that involves administering a strong electrical current to the person's brain to produce a seizure; it is effective for some cases of severe depression. (page 626)
430
Exposure
A behavioral therapy technique that involves repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation. (page 619)
431
Expressed emotion
A pattern of negative actions by a client's family members; the pattern includes critical comments, hostility directed toward the person by family members, and emotional over involvement. (page 622)
432
Insight
The goal of psychoanalysis; a client's awareness of his own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect daily functioning. (page 617)
433
Placebo effect
An improvement in physical or mental health following treatment with a placebo -- that is, with a drug or treatment that has no active component on the disorder being treated. (page 628)
434
Psychodynamic therapy
A form of therapy based on Freudian theory; it aims to help clients examine needs, defenses, and motives as a way of understanding distress. (page 618)
435
Psychotherapy
The generic name given to formal psychological treatment. (page 616)
436
Psychotropic medications
Drugs that affect mental processes. (page 623)
