Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

From Flashcardlet > anatomy test 2 > Flashcards

anatomy test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Effects of aging on joints

A

issue repair is slow

  • Synovial fluid production declines
  • Less joint flexibility
  • Range of motion is reduced
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Osteoarthritis

A

joint wear and tear

  • Articular cartilage softens and degenerates
  • Crackling sounds called crepitus
  • Bone spurs develop on exposed bone tissue causing pain
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis

A

autoimmune attack on a joint

  • Antibodies attack synovial membrane, enzymes in synovial fluid degrade cartilage
  • Causes bone ossification
  • Remissions occur, inflammation can be controlled with steroids and aspirin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Arthroplasty

A

the replacement of a diseased joint with an artificial one called a prosthesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Arthrodesis

A

artificial ankylosis or surgical fusion of 2 bones

  • Common sites- ankle, foot, hand and spine (lumbar)
  • Procedure- taking donor bone (autograph or allograft) reestablish joint space, fill it with donor bone or use metal/ceramic implants covered/prefused with BMP (bone morphogentic protein)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Functions of the Skeletal system:

A
  • Support- holds the body up, supports muscles, supports teeth
  • Protection- of brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs
  • Movement- limb movement, breathing, action of muscle on bone
  • Electrolyte balance- calcium and phosphate ion storage
  • Acid base balance- buffer blood against pH changes like alkaline phosphate and carbonate salts
  • Blood formation- red bone marrow is the producer of blood cells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Characteristic of bone and osseous tissue-

A
  • Bone- connective tissue with harden matrix bc of calcium phosphate and other minerals
  • Mineralization or calcification- the hardening on bones
  • Bones consist of- bone tissue, bone marrow, cartilage, adipose tissue, nervous tissue, fibrous CT
  • Continually remodels itself and interacts with all other organ systems
  • Permeated with nerves and blood vessels
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

long bones

A

longer than they are wide, rigid levers that are acted upon by muscles eg. Ulna and femur

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

short bones

A

equal in length and width, gliding movement eg. Carpal bones and talus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

flat bones

A

protect soft organs, curved but wide and thin eg. Scapula and sternum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

irregular bones

A

elaborate shapes that don’t fit into other categories eg. Vertebra and sphenoid bone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

compact bone

A

dense, outer shell of long bones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

diaphysis

A

shaft, cylinder of compact bone to provide leverage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Medullary cavity

A

(marrow cavity)- space within diaphysis that contains bone marrow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Epiphyses

A

enlarged ends of long bones, for strength and ligament/tendon attachment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Spongy (cancellous) bone

A

covered by compact, found in ends of long bones and middle of others, skeleton is about ¾ compact and ¼ spongy bone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Articular cartilage

A
  • layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the joint surface where one bone meets another
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Nutrient foramina

A

minute holes in bone surface that allow for blood vessel penetration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Periosteum

A

external sheath that covers bone except where there is articular cartilage
Outer layer- fibrosis collagen- Sharpey’s fibers- penetrate bone matrix, strong attachment of muscle to tendon to bone
Inner osteogenic layer of bone forming cells- for growth and healing of fractures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Endosteum

A

thin layer of reticular connective tissue lines marrow cavity; cells that dissolve/deposit bone
Epiphyseal plate- growth plate, hyaline cartilage that separates marrow spaces of epiphysis and diaphysis , enables growth in length, in adults: epiphyseal line bony scars where plate used to be

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Osteogenic cells-

A

stem cells
• found in endosteum, periosteum and central canal
• arise from mesenchymal cells
• continuously multiply to produce osteoblasts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Osteoblasts-

A

bone forming cells, nonmitotic
• line up as single layer under endosteum and periosteum
• synthesize soft organic matter which then hardens bc of minerals
• stress and fractures make osteogenic cells multiply and create these
• secrete osteocalcin-bone structural protein
o stimulates insulin and increase insulin sensitively in adipocytes- limits adipose growth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Osteocytes-

A

former osetoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they have deposited
• lacunae- tiny cavities where they reside
• canaliculi- little channels that connect lacunae, cytoplasmic processes reach into them
• some reabsorb bone matrix while others deposit it
• contribute to bone density and calcium and phosphate ions, homeostasis
• when stressed, produce biochemical signals that regulate bone remolding

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

osteoclasts

A

bone dissolving cells
• found on bone surface
• develop from red bone marrow (same as blood cells)
• very large cells bc formed from fusion of several stem cells, 3-4 nuclei
• ruffled border- side facing bone surface- folding increase surface area and reabsorption efficiency
• howship lacunae- reabsorption bays- pits on bone surface where osteoclasts reside
• remolding results from combined action on osteoclasts and osteoblasts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

matrix is ___ organic ___ inorganic

A

1/3, 2/3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

organic matrix

A

polymer, synthesized by osteoblasts, collagen, carbs, protein like glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, allows for some flexibility

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

inorganic matrix

A

ceramic 85% hydroxyapatite (crystallized Ca and PO4 salt) 10% CaCO3 other: Na, K, Mg, F, allows for body weight support

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

rickets

A

soft bones due to deficiency of calcium salts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Osteogenesis imperfect or brittle bone disease

A

very brittle bones because of lack of collagen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Compact bone

A

osteon- haversian system- the structural unit of compact bone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Spongy bone

A

few osteons and no central canals, all osteocytes are close to bone marrow, provides strength with minimal weight
spaces filled with RBM

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Spicules

A

slivers of bone in SB

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

trabeculae

A

thin plates that develop along bone stress lines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Red marrow

A

soft tissue that occupies marrow cavity of long bone and trabeculae of spongy bone
myeloid tissue- hemopoietic tissue- produces blood cells and is composed of multiple tissues; in every child bone, in skull, vertebrae, sternum, pelvis, humerus and femur of adults

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Yellow marrow

A

found in adults, red marrow turns into is a yellow fatty marrow that doesn’t make blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Zone of polarizing activity

A

patch of tissue that causes ulnar side of distal limb to be different from radius

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what does intramembranous ossification produce

A

the flat bones of the skull and most of the clavicle (collar bone)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

process in which bone develops from pre-existing cartilage model

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Stages of endochonral ossification

A
  • First few fetal months- cartilage and blood vessels occupy bone space
  • 2nd trimester- diaphysis begins to form but there is no cartilage orientation= woven bone
  • Birth- one epiphysis and one secondary ossification center
  • Child- epiphyseal plate, spongy bone
  • Adult- single marrow cavity, closed epiphyseal plate= epiphyseal line
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Zone of reserve cartilage

A

hyaline cartilage farthest from the marrow cavity, no transition activity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Zone of proliferation

A

chondrocytes from columns

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Zone of hypertrophy

A

chondrocyte enlargement cartilage formed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Zone of calcification

A

mineral deposit in cartilage matrix

44
Q

Zone of bone deposition

A

chondrocytes die, osteoblasts fill the space, blood vessels network, osteoclasts dissolve calcified cartilage

45
Q

Fontanelle

A

soft spots on baby’s skull, formed at coronal sagittal cross and lambodial sagittal cross

46
Q

Interstitial growth

A

increase in length, cartilage growth within epiphyseal plate, calcifies too fast for cartilage reproduction to keep up so eventually growth plates close

47
Q

Appositional growth

A

increase in width, continues throughout life span, new bone is deposited on surface by osteoblasts on periosteum, lay down the matrix parallel to surface, forms a circumferential lamellae, thickening of the cortical bone

48
Q

Wolff’s law of bone

A

bone is formed depending on the forces placed on it

49
Q

Mineralization

A

crystallization process where CaPO4 is taken from bloodstream and deposited to bone

50
Q

Seed crystals

A

first calcified cells attract more calcium and phosphate

51
Q

Abnormal calcification

A

ectopic- in lungs, brain, eyes, muscles, tendons, arteries (arteriosclerosis)
Calculus- calcified mass in otherwise soft organ

52
Q

Mineral reabsorption

A

dissolving bone and releasing minerals into blood by osteoclasts at ruffled border

53
Q

Ca is important to:

A

to nerves, muscles, bone, blood clotting etc. normal level is 9.2-10.4mg/dl, which is about 1100g

54
Q

PO4 is important to

A

DNA, RNA, ATP, pH buffer, nucleotides and bone

essential for membrane composition, skeletal development, bone mineralization, cellular signaling and nucleotides

55
Q

Hypocalcemia

A

deficiency of Ca, can be caused by vitamin D deficiency, diarrhea, thyroid problems, pregnancy. One sign is carpopedal spasm- muscles spasms in the hands and feet

56
Q

Calcitriol

A

form of vitamin D that is produced by keratinocytes through UV light converting steroid to vitamin D3, the livers adds a –OH group and the kidneys add an –OH group to make calcitriol
• Increases calcium absorption in the small intestine
• Increases reabsorption in skeleton and kidneys
• Low vitamin D is related to osteoporosis, falls, cancers, MS, low immune response, diabetes

57
Q

Calcitonin

A

secreted by clear thyroid cells when calcium level is too high; lowers blood [Ca] by:
• Osteoclast inhibition decreasing activity by 70%
• Osteoblast stimulation so deposits more bone
• Important in children and pregnant women

58
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

(PTH)- secreted by PT released during low calcium levels; raises levels by:
• Raising osteoblast population
• Increasing reabsorption by kidneys
• Promotes calcitriol synthesis
• Inhibits collagen synthesis and bone deposit

59
Q

Pathological fracture

A

break in bone because its weakened by some other disease (cancer, osteoporosis)

60
Q

Healing of a fracture

A

normally takes 8-12 weeks total

  1. Fracture hematoma and granulation tissue
    a. Bleeding forms clot which is the fracture hematoma
    b. Capillaries, fibroblast, macrophages, osteoclasts, osteogenic cells invade clot
    c. Granulation tissue forms, soft fiboruous mass
  2. Soft callus formation
    a. Formed by fibroblasts and chondroblasts deposit collagen
  3. Conversion to hard callus
    a. Osteoblasts produce bony collar with 4-6 weeks, must be immobilized
    b. Hard callus is cemented to dead bone around the injury site as a splint
  4. Remolding
    a. Hard callus persists for 3-4 months
    b. Osteoclasts dissolve fragments of broken bone
    c. Osteoblasts deposit spongy bone to bridge gap btwn broken ends
    d. Transforms into thicker compact bone
61
Q

Osteoporosis

A

common bone disease- loss of organic matrix and minerals cause mass and brittle bones

  • Affect spongy bone the most, loose trabecule and cross bridges
  • Causes pathological fractures of hip wrist and spine
  • Kyphosis- widow’s lump, spine deformity because of vertebral bone loss
  • Complications due to mobility loss- pneumonia and thrombosis
  • Postmenopausal white women are at the highest risk!
  • Other risk factors: age, race, gender, smoking, diabetes, diet (lack of Ca, protein, vit C&D)
62
Q

what does estrogen do

A

maintains bone density by inhibiting reabsorption by osteoclasts

63
Q

treatments for osteoporosis

A

ERT- estrogen replacement therapy- risk of breast cancer, stroke, heart disease
Fosamax/Actonel- medications that destroy osteoclasts
PTH- slows bone loss of given daily injection, Forteo increases bone density 10%/yr max 2 years
Prevention- exercise and calcium intake: 1000 mg/day from age 25-40

64
Q

functions of muscles

A

movement of body parts, maintain posture, heartbeat, respiration, communication (speech, writing, expression) control of openings and passageways, heat production

65
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

attached to bone (mostly), multiple peripherally located nuclei, striated, voluntary and reflex

66
Q

smooth muscle

A

walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, skin, eyes, glands, single central nucleus, not striated, involuntary and gap junctions

67
Q

cardiac muscle

A

heart muscle, single central nucleus, intercalated discs, striated, rhythmic, involuntary

68
Q

epimysium

A

covers entire muscle, blends into connective tissue between muscles, outermost

69
Q

perimysium

A
  • slightly thicker, surrounds fascicle of muscle fibers, middle
70
Q

endomysium

A
  • thin areolar tissue around each muscle cell will capillaries and nerves, innermost
71
Q

aponeuroses

A

broad flat fibrous sheet attaches to bone or skin or intermuscular CT

72
Q

Muscle attachments

A

Direct- fleshy attachment to bone, epimysium is continuous with periosteum eg intercostals muscles
Indirect- epimysium continues as tendon or aponeuorsis that merges w periosteum as perforating fibers
Dermal- attaches to skin, eg platysma

73
Q

Sharpey’s fibers

A

insertion points/enthesis: the point at which a tendon or ligament or muscle inserts into a bone, where the collagen fibers are mineralized and integrated into the bone

74
Q

properties of muscles

A

Contractility- ability to shorten/contract with force
Conductivity- local stimulus triggers a wave effect of excitement
Responsiveness (excitability)- capacity to respond to stimulus
Extensibility- can be stretched to resting length and beyond
Elasticity- ability to recoil to resting length after being stretched

75
Q

muscles develop from

A

myoblasts

76
Q

actin

A

thin protein involved in contracting,

  • G-actin: twisted to form a helical structure that binds into connective tissue Z-disks
  • F-actin: polarized polymer chain with positive and negative tails
77
Q

myosin

A

heavy and light meromyosin, crossbridge has 2 heads projecting from “heavy” fragment, each head is an ATP binding site and a site for ATP hydrolysis

78
Q

tropomyosin

A

long thin protein that lies in the groove formed by the helical structre of actin, cover the crossbridge binding sites on actin from myosin

79
Q

Titan

A

molecular spring- traverses from Z-disk to M-line, extensible segment almost the full length of the I-band that has regulatory functions and coordinates signaling pathways

80
Q

Dystrophin

A

cohesive protein that links actin to other proteins

81
Q

sarcomere

A

functional unit of muscle cells from 1 Z-disk to the next, appears striated because of I, A H

82
Q

i band

A

actin does not overlap myosin here, appears light

83
Q

a band

A

myosin is located here and some actin overlaps, appears dark

84
Q

h zone

A

center of sarcomere with just myosin, no actin overlap, lighter than A-band, disappears on contraction when actin slides over myosin

85
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum

A
  • series of tubules, T-tubules separate cisterns, when stimulated, cisternae release Ca to stimulate muscle contraction, actively pump Ca back into cisterns after stimulation stops
86
Q

which moves during contraction? actin or myosin

A

actin slides over myosin

87
Q

resting membrane potential

A

voltage difference across the membranes (polarized)
o Inside cell- negative, K+
o Outside cell- positive, Na+

88
Q

depolarization

A

inside becomes less negative

89
Q

repolarization

A

returns to normal resting potential

90
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

synapse or NMJ
• has presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft and prosynaptic membrane
• acetylcholine- neurotransmitter
• acetylcholinesterase- degrading enzyme in synaptic cleft

91
Q

Muscle twitch

A

contraction in response to a stimulus that causes action potential

  • phases- lag/latent, contraction, relaxation
  • 1 motor unit= 1 motor neuron and all the fibers it innervates
92
Q

treppe

A

consistent temporal stimulus, pattern, increase in amount of stimulus, each subsequent contraction is stronger than the previous one

93
Q

incomplete tetanus

A

partially relax between contractions

94
Q

complete tetanus

A

no relaxation between

95
Q

multiple wave summation

A

tension increases as frequency increases

96
Q

isometric contraction

A

no length change but tension increases, the ends of the contracting muscle are fixed so contraction produces increased tension at constant length eg. Postural muscles, lifting an object and holding it there

97
Q

isotonic contraction

A

length change, constant tension
• Concentric- overcomes opposing resistance and muscle shortens
• Eccentric- tension maintained but muscle lengthens

98
Q

muscle tone

A

constant tension by muscles for long periods of time, firmness, resting state of tension

99
Q

origin of passive tension

A

titin, large fibrous protein that connects Z-disks in the sarcomere with the myosin filaments, intramolecular protein, “stretches” creating feel of passive stiffness during ROM

100
Q

fatigue

A

decreased capacity to do work, reduced efficiency of performance

  • Physiological- depends on emotional state
  • Muscular- results from ATP depletion
  • Synaptic- occurs in NMJ because of lack of acetylcholine
101
Q

ATP energy sources

A
  • Creatine phosphate- during resting conditions, it stores energy to synthesize ATP
  • Anaerobic respiration- absence of oxygen, breakdown of glucose to make ATP and lactic acid
  • Aerobic respiration- presence of oxygen, breakdown of glucose to make ATP, CO2 and H2O
102
Q

slow twitch or high oxidative fibers

A

contract slowly, small in diameter, good blood supply, more mitochondria, more fatigue resistant

103
Q

fast twitch or low oxidative fibers

A

responds rapidly to nervous system stimuli, has myosin to quickly breakdown ATP, less blood supply, smaller and fewer mitochondria, more susceptible to fatigue

104
Q

smooth muscle

A

not striated, dense bodies instead of Z-disks, non-contractile filaments, Ca required

  • Visceral or unitary- function as a unit
  • Multiunit- cells or group of cells act independently
105
Q

properties of smooth muscle

A
  • autorhythmic contraction
  • Contracts in response to sudden stretch
  • Relatively constant tension
  • Constant amplitude of contraction
  • Innervated by autonomic NS
  • NT: acetylcholine and norepinephrine
  • Receptors are on plasma membrane
106
Q

cardiac muscle

A
  • Action potentials are long in duration and refractory
  • Striated, single nucleus
  • Intercalacted disks, gap junctions
  • Autorhythmic cells
107
Q

effects of aging on skeletal muscle

A
  • Reduced muscle mass and stamina
  • Increased recovery time
  • Increased time to contract in response to stimuli
  • Loss of muscle fibers
  • Decreased density of muscle capillaries

From Flashcardlet (34 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions