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APHY 165 > AnP Chapter 17 (LO1) > Flashcards

AnP Chapter 17 (LO1) Flashcards

1
Q

Lymphatic system

A

consist of lymphatic vessels, length, lymphatic tissues, and lymphatic organs

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2
Q

The tissues and organs of the lymphatic system include

A

lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils, spleen and red bone marrow

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3
Q

The lymphatic system has three functions:

A

The maintenance of fluid balance: absorb this fluid and return it to the bloodstream

Absorption of fats: specialized lymphatic vessels in the small intestines absorb fat and fat soluble vitamins

Immunity: lymph nodes and other lymphatic organs filter lymph to remove cellular waste, microorganisms and foreign particles

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4
Q

Lymph

A

A clear, colorless fluid similar to plasma but with a lower protein content

Originates in the tissues as the fluid left behind after Capillary exchange

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5
Q

Lymphatic Vessels

A

Also called lymphatic capillaries

carry fluid in one direction only away from the tissue

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6
Q

lymphatic vessel structure

A

Have thin walls made of epithelial and valves to prevent backflow

lymphatic vessels overlap loosely

Valves prevent backflow, ensuring that length move steadily away from the tissues and toward the heart

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7
Q

The lymphatic system has two collecting ducts:

A

The right lymphatic duct: drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body into the right subclavian vein

Thoracic duct: drains limbs from the rest of the body into the left subclavian vein

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8
Q

Macrophages

A

phagocytize bacteria and foreign matter

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9
Q

Dendritic cells

A

which engulf foreign substances and help activate T cells

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10
Q

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

A

Passages that open to the exterior of the body contain scattering of lymphocytes throughout their mucous lining

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11
Q

Tonsils

A

Masses of lymphoid tissue that forms a protective circle at the back of the throat

Guard against pathogens entering the body through the nose or throat

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12
Q

Tonsillar crypts

A

deep pits covered with epithelium

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13
Q

3 sets of tonsils

A

A singular Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids): sits on the wall of the pharynx just behind the nasal cavity

A pair of Palatine tonsils: lies in the posterior of the oral cavity

Numerous lingual tonsils: are concentrated in patches on each side of the base of the tongue

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14
Q

Appendix

A

A narrow pouch that projects off the lower end of the large intestine

Densely populated with lymphocytes

May serve as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria

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15
Q

Payer’s patches

A

Small masses of lymphatic tissue scattered throughout the small intestine just beneath the intestinal mucosa

Part of the gut associated lymphatic tissue (GALT)

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16
Q

Lymphatic organs

A

have connective tissue capsules that separate the organ from neighbouring tissues

lymphatic organs are divided into two categories: primary and secondary

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17
Q

primary lymphatic organs

A

include the famous in Redbone Marrow

Provide a location for stem cells to divide and mature into T and B lymphocytes

immunocompetence

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18
Q

Immunocompetence:

A

Where lymphocytes learn to recognize and attack foreign invaders

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19
Q

secondary lymphatic organs

A

include lymph nodes in the spleen; this is where mature lymphocytes become activated and begin to protect the foreign pathogen’s

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20
Q

Thymus

A

Produces T cells

Located in the mediastinum

Produces a hormone called thymosin

After enlarging through childhood, it slowly shrinks

Divided into Lobules that extend in word from a fibrous outer capsule

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21
Q

thymosin

A

Promotes the development of lymphocytes

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22
Q

Steps on how the thymus works

A
  1. Immature T lymphocytes travel from Redbone Merrill to the outer cortex of the thymus protecting them and giving them a chance to divide and mature
  2. The developing T lymphocytes migrate toward the inner medulla
    a) They encounter other lymphoid cells which trains the new lymphocytes to distinguish between its own cells and foreign cells
  3. Once the training is complete the lymphocytes are immunocompetent and released into the bloodstream
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23
Q

Lymph nodes

A

serve as sites for final maturation of some types of lymphocytes and monocytes

removed pathogens in foreign material from lymph as it passes through

The body contains more than 600 lymph nodes

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24
Q

Trabeculae

A

connective tissue that extends to the node dividing it into compartments

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25
Q

Cortical nodules

A

compartments filled with lymphocytes

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26
Q

Germinal centers

A

a less dense area at the center of the compartments that form and release lymphocytes when an infection is present

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27
Q

Sinuses

A

lined with macrophages which separate the compartments and filter lymph as it flows through the sinuses

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28
Q

Afferents lymphatic vessels

A

Channel fluid into a node

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29
Q

Efferent lymphatic vessel

A

after slowly filtering through the node lymph leaves through single

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30
Q

Cervical lymph nodes

A

found in the neck, monitor limbs coming from head and neck

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31
Q

Axillary lymph nodes

A

classic in the armpit, receive them from arm and breast

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32
Q

Inguinal lymph nodes

A

occur in the groin, they receive lymph from legs

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33
Q

Sentinel lymph node

A

the first lymph node reached by metastasizing cancer cells

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34
Q

Lymphadenopathy

A

enlargement of one or more lymph nodes

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35
Q

Stony hard nodes

Very firm, rubbery nodes

Softer nodes

A

typically indicate metastic cancer

suggest lymphoma (cancer involving lymphocytes)

suggest infection or inflammatory condition

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36
Q

Postauricular lymph nodes

A

located behind the ear, main large as a result of infections of the head, neck, sinuses, ears, scalp or pharynx

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37
Q

Suboccipital lymph nodes

A

which reside where the back of the neck meets the head

Main large as a result of localized infection of the scalp or head

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38
Q

Preauricular lymph nodes

A

located behind the ear, main large as a result of infections of the head, neck, sinuses, ears, scalp or pharynx

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39
Q

Submandibular lymph nodes

A

suggest an infection of the head, neck, sinus, ears, eyes, scalp, or pharynx

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40
Q

Axillary lymph nodes

A

made in large as a result of an infection, cat scratch disease, lymphoma or breast cancer

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41
Q

Inguinal lymph nodes

A

may occur from infection of the leg or foot, a sexually transmitted disease or lymphoma

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42
Q

Spleen

A

About the size of a fist

The body’s largest lymphatic organ

Resides in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen inferior to the diaphragm protected by the lower ribs

The spleen contains two types of tissue: red pulp and white pulp

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43
Q

White pulp

A

contains compact masses of lymphocytes, surrounds the arteries leading into each compartment

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44
Q

Red pulp

A

exist along the edges of the compartments

Consist of a network of erythrocyte filled sinuses supported by a framework of reticular fibers and phagocytic cells

Blood collects in the venous sinuses after passing through the reticular fibers
it then returns to the heart through the veins

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45
Q

The spleen fulfils many functions:

A

Immunity

destruction of old red blood cells

blood storage

hematopoiesis

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46
Q

Immunity

A

lymphocytes and macrophages in the white pulp screen passing blood for foreign antigens while phagocytic cells in the sinuses ingest and destroy any microorganisms

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47
Q

Destruction of old red blood cells

A

macrophages in the sinuses digest worn out red blood cells and imperfect platelets

They also recycle haemoglobin from destroyed red blood cells salvaging the iron and globin and returning it to the bone marrow and liver for later use

48
Q

Blood storage

A

the spleen store is 20% to 30% of the bodies platelets

it can help stabilize blood volume by rapidly adding blood back into general circulation

49
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

the spleen produces red blood cells in the fetus

After birth it does so only in cases of severe anaemia

Throat life the spleen provides a location for monocytes and lymphocytes to mature

50
Q

immune system: The body has —– lines of defense for taking care of threats it encounters on a daily basis

A

3

51
Q

First line of defence

A

External barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes keep most of the pathogens we encounter at bay

52
Q

Second line of defence

A

If a pathogen penetrates the first line of defence the body launches several mechanisms geared at repelling a wide variety of threats

53
Q

Nonspecific immunity (innate immunity)

A

Protects against a broad range of pathogen’s using a variety of mechanisms such as external barriers, phagocytosis, antimicrobial proteins, natural killer cells, inflammation and fever

54
Q

Third line of defence

A

specific immunity

If exposed to the same pathogen in the future the body can quickly recognize it targeting a response at this one specific invader

55
Q

Specific immunity

A

this occurs when the body retains a memory of a pathogen after defeating it

56
Q

External barriers

A

The skin is composed of tough protein, repels most pathogens and its surface is dry and lacking nutrients making it a hostile environment for bacteria

Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tract which produces mucus and traps pathogens

lysozomes

57
Q

Acid mantle

A

a thin layer of acid produced by sweat that inhibits bacterial growth

58
Q

Lysozyme

A

an enzyme which destroys bacteria that is found in mucus, tears, and saliva

59
Q

Phagocytosis

A

If a pathogen makes its way past the skin or mucous membranes and enters the body it will be confronted by phagocytes

60
Q

how phagocytosis works

A
  1. phagocytes are small cells whose sole job is to ingest and destroy micro organisms and other small particles
  2. When a phagocyte encounters of microorganism it sends out a membrane projection called pseudopods
  3. The pseudopods envelop a complete sac called phagosome
  4. The phagosome travels to the interior of the cell and fuses with a lyzome which contains digestive enzymes
  5. The digestive enzymes from the lysosome destroy the micro organism
  6. The waste products are then released from the cell
61
Q

Types of phagocytes

A

Most important phagocytes are macrophages and neutrophils

Macrophages evolve from monocytes and congregate in areas where microbial invasion is likely to occur such as the Alviolus of the lungs, the liver, nerve tissue, bone and the spleen

Neutrophils around the body seeking out bacteria

62
Q

How phagocytosis it works

A

Chemotaxis: Neutrophils travel to site of infection after being summoned by a chemical released from inflamed cells

Once they’re the neutrophils anchor themselves to the inside of blood Capillary

Diapedesis: they use enzymes to digest a portion of the basement membrane which allows them to squeeze out of the vessel and enter the inflamed tissue

63
Q

Antimicrobial proteins

A

Two types of proteins help provide non-specific resistance against bacterial and viral invasion: interferons and the complement system

64
Q

Interferons

A

a protein produced by cells to respond to viral invasion

The interferon is released and binds to surface receptors on cells that triggers production of enzymes that would prevent the virus from replicating

65
Q

Complement system

A

more than 20 different proteins circulate in the blood stream in an in active form waiting to assist in the immune response

The release of complement also starts a process that kills certain bacteria

66
Q

how the complement system works

A

The process begins when a bacteria or antibodies against the bacteria, activate the complement causing a cascade of chemical reactions

Membrane attack complex: A group of complement proteins embedded themselves into the bacterium’s plasma membrane in the ring like circles effectively punching a hole in the bacterium

Fluid and sodium ration to the bacterium through the opening

Bacterium swells and bursts

67
Q

Natural killer cells

A

a unique group of them for sites that continually roam the body seeking a pathogens or disease and destroying any foreign cells

They use several methods to destroy the cells most of them involve the secretion of chemicals

68
Q

Inflammation

A

Tissue injury produces inflammation

Inflammation stimulates the body’s defense system to begin fighting the infection while instigating measures to contain the pathogen

The inflammatory response includes processes at cleanup and repair the damaged tissue

69
Q

how inflammation works

A
  1. Injured cells secrete chemicals causing blood to rush in (hyperemia) bringing necessary leucocytes and flush out toxins/wastes
  2. The same chemicals that trigger vasodilation also causes the cells in the capillary walls to separate allowing fluid, leucocytes and plasma proteins to leak through into the injured tissue
    - —Fibrinogen that leaks into the area formed a sticky cloth to help keep the infection from spreading
  3. Neutrophils which have been drawn to the area by chemotaxis actively phagocytize pathogens
70
Q

4 classic signs of inflammation:

A

Swelling: results from fluid leaking out of the capillaries

Redness: results from hyperemia

Heat: results from hyperemia

Pain: may result from injured nerves, pressure on the nerves from swelling, or stimulation of nerves by bacterial toxins

71
Q

Signs of inflammation also facilitate healing:

A

Swelling compress veins reducing venous drainage while forcing the Capillary valves open to promote
Capillary drainage

Hyperemia: brings materials necessary for healing including oxygen and amino acids

Heat in the area increases the metabolic rate and the rate of tissue repair

Pain signals that an injury has occurred and serves as a reminder to rest the area to allow healing

72
Q

Words ending in -itis denote

A

inflammation

73
Q

Pyrexia (fever)

Febrile

A

Pyrexia (fever): is an abnormal elevation of body temperature

Febrile: a person with a fever

74
Q

The sequence of events during a fever

A
  1. As neutrophils and macrophages phagocytize bacteria, they secrete pyrogen
  2. PGE resets the bodys set point for temp
  3. When the set point rises the body needs to generate heat by shivering and constricting blood vessels
  4. The temperature rises until it reaches its new set point where it remains as long as the pathogen is present
  5. When the pathogen is no longer a threat, the phagocytes stop producing the pyrogen and the bodys set point for temperature returns to normal
    - —The body needs to lose the excess heat by sweating and dilating blood vessels
75
Q

Temperatures over —– can cause convulsions

Temperatures greater than — to — typically result in irreversible brain damage or death

A

Temperatures over 105 (40.5) can cause convulsions

Temperatures greater than 111 to 115 (44 to 46) typically result in irreversible brain damage or death

76
Q

Two mechanisms of specific immunity

A

cellular (cell mediated) immunity

humoral (antibody mediated) immunity

77
Q

cellular (cell mediated) immunity

A

aims to destroy foreign cells or host cells that have become infected with a pathogen

78
Q

humoral (antibody mediated) immunity

A

focuses on pathogens outside the host cells, sends out antibodies to “mark” a pathogen for later destruction

79
Q

active immunity

A

body routinely makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen

permanent

80
Q

passive immunity

A

possible to achieve immunity after receiving an injection of antibodies from another person or animal

lasts only a few months

81
Q

natural active immunity

A

the type of immunity occurs when the body produces antibodies or T cells after being exposed to a particular antigen

82
Q

artificial active immunity

A

this results when the body makes T cells and antibodies against a disease as a result of a vaccination

83
Q

natural passive immunity

A

this form of immunity results when a fetus acquires antibodies from the mother through the placenta, or when a body acquires them through breastfeeding

84
Q

artificial passive immunity

A

this form of immunity involves obtaining serum from a person or an animal that has produced antibodies against a certain pathogen and then injecting it into someone else

85
Q

Lymphocytes

A

fight invading pathogens

3 classes: natural killer cells, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes

86
Q

T Lymphocytes

A

T cells

Develop from stem cells in red bone marrow

Before they fully mature they leave the bone marrow and go to the thymus until they are fully functional

Once the cells are immunocompetent they go to the lymphatic organs and tissues ( lymph nodes, spleen, peyer’s patches and tonsils)

87
Q

B Lymphocytes

A

B cells

Begin as stem cells in red bone marrow

Remain in bone marrow until fully functional

Once mature they leave bone marrow and go to lymphatic organs and tissues

88
Q

Antibodies

A

gamma globulin proteins formed by B cells and found in plasma and body secretions

89
Q

Immunoglobulins (Ig)

A

chains of proteins joined together in a way that resembles a capital Y or T

90
Q

Antigen

A

any molecule that triggers an immune response

91
Q

5 classes of antibodies

A

IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM

92
Q

IgA:

A

populates mucous membranes in the intestines, respiratory tract, and urinary tract

Also found in saliva, tears and breast milk

93
Q

IgD

A

exists in the blood in very amounts may activate basophils and mast cells

94
Q

IgE

A

involved in allergic reactions

95
Q

IgG

A

is the primary antibody of the secondary immune response: also the most abundant of all the immunoglobulins, making up 80% of all circulating antibodies

96
Q

IgM

A

active in the primary immune response also involved in agglutination of incompatible blood types

97
Q

3 classes of T cells:

A

Cytotoxic T cells (killer T cells): carry out the attack

Helper T cells: play a supportive role

Memory T cells: remember the pathogen in case of future invasion

98
Q

how cellular immunity works

A
  1. The immune process begins when a phagocyte ingests an antigen
  2. Antigen-presenting cell: a phagocyte that displays fragments of the antigen on its surface
    a) Antigen presentation: alerts the immune system to the presence of a foreign antigen

b) When the T cell spots the foreign antigen it binds to it
3. This activates the T cell which begins dividing repeatedly to form clones: some will become effector cells (such as cytotoxic T cells) which will carry out the attack others will become memory cells
4. cytotoxic T cells binds to the surface of the antigen and delivers a toxic dose of chemicals that will kill it
5. interleukin: a chemical secreted from helper T cells which attract neutrophils, natural killer cells and macrophages
a) It stimulates the production of T and B cells

99
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

Focusses on pathogens outside the cell

It uses antibodies to mark the antigen for the later destruction

100
Q

How Humoral Immunity works

A
  1. The surface of a B cell contains thousands of receptors for a specific antigen which binds to it
  2. The best so that engulfs the antigen digest it and display some of the antigens fragments on its surface
    a) A helper T cell binds to the present antigens and secretes interleukins which activate the B cell
  3. The best cell begins to rapidly reproduce creating a clone or family of identical B cells that are programmed against the same antigen
  4. Some of these cloned P cells become effective by cells or memory B cells most become plasma cells
101
Q

Antibodies use a range of tactics to defeat antigens including the following

A

Binding to antigens attachment points, preventing it from attaching to a human cell

Triggering agglutination helping to contain the antigen and make it easier for phagocytes to work

Promoting the binding of complement proteins to the invading cell setting of the complement cascade destroying the invading microorganism

102
Q

Antibody titer

A

the amount of time between exposure to a new antigen and the rising level of blood antibodies against that antigen

103
Q

Secondary response

A

rapid production of memory and plasma cells which can then create large numbers of antibodies against the antigen

104
Q

Hypersensitivity

Immunodeficiency disorder

A

Hypersensitivity: When the immune system overreacts to an antigen

Immunodeficiency disorder: when the immune system fails to react

105
Q

Allergy

A

a condition in which the immune system reacts to environmental substances that most people can tolerate

106
Q

Anaphylaxis

A

a severe immediate allergic reaction that affects the whole body

The release of a huge amount of histamine causes constriction of the airways and vasodilation causing blood pressure to drop

107
Q

Autoimmune diseases

A

When the bodies immune system fails to differentiate between self antigens and foreign antigens the body produces antibodies that attack it’s on tissue resulting in an autoimmune disease

There are more than 100 auto immune diseases

108
Q

Systemic lupus erythematosus

A

affects the kidneys, skin, heart, and joints

109
Q

Scleroderma

A

affects the skin, intestines and lungs

110
Q

Grave’s disease

A

affects the thyroid gland

111
Q

Ulcerative colitis

A

affects GI tract

112
Q

Immunodeficiency diseases

A

The immune system fails to adequately protect the body against pathogens

113
Q

Severe combined immunodeficiency disease

A

children have few to no T and B cells and can’t fight off pathogens forcing them to live in a protected environment

114
Q

Aquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids)

A

results from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

115
Q

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

A

the virus invades helper T cells eventually destroying them

116
Q

Autograft

Allograft

A

Autograft: tissue is taken from one part of the body and transplanted to another

Allograft: tissue taken from a donor and transplanted in the recipient

117
Q

Aging and the immune system

A

The body produces fewer haemopoietic stem cells, disease fighting white blood cells, and antigen presenting cells

Lymphocytes the body does produce after failed to mature and become immunocompetent

T cells respond less quickly to antigens previously encountered

The bodies macrophages destroy bacteria cancer cells and antigens more slowly

APHY 165 (12 decks)

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