ANTHRO 213 Exam 1 (ALL TERMS) Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
Anthropology
A
study of human knowledge (our culture, society, etc.) – it is holistic, comparative, and dynamic
2
Q
Cultural Anthropology
A
study of LEARNED aspects of human behavior (different cultures; how humans have adapted to each other and the environment)
3
Q
Ethnography
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detailed study/description of human learned behavior (or culture)
4
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Culture
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human learned behavior; religions, foods, relationships, music, clothing, etc
5
Q
Cultural Relativity
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suspending one’s personal judgement in order to understand and appreciate another’s culture
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Q
Archaeology
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study of earlier cultures and lifestyles through recovery, analysis and interpretation of MATERIAL REMAINS from past societies
7
Q
Linguistic Anthropology
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study of human speech and language (exp. origin of languages and dialects, language acquisition, etc.)
8
Q
Biological Anthropology
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study of human/primate biology (explains what it means to be biological human, a primate, etc.)
9
Q
Human evolution
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study of the emergence of humans as a distinct genetic population/species sharing the same genes
10
Q
Paleoanthropology
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anthropology but focused on “old humans”
11
Q
Biocultural adaptation
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evolution of human biology and culture; how our interactions with the environment have prompted change in us
12
Q
Primatology
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study of the behavior and biology of nonhuman primates; includes things like behavioral studies, conservation, etc.
13
Q
Paleopathology
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study of diseases/trauma in archaeological remains; look at how disease spread and affected the body to help with modern diseases
14
Q
Molecular Anthropology
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investigate evolutionary relationships between human populations as well as between humans and nonhuman primates; involves population genetics, ancient DNA (from fossils), and forensic implications
15
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Forensic Anthropology
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type of applied anthropology (anthropology outside of academia); use of anthropological methods in legal issues (exp. working with coroners to analyze and identify human remains)
16
Q
Steps of Scientific Method
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observation (of the natural world)
hypothesis formation
hypothesis testing
theory development (assuming testing is successful)
17
Q
Hypothesis vs Theory
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hypothesis – provisional and untested explanation of phenomenon
theory – statement of scientific relationships/principles that has been verified through testing of hypotheses
18
Q
Ethnocentrism
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viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one’s own culture; often causes other cultures to be seen as inferior to one’s own
19
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Fixity of species
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idea that a species is fixed; species were created as they exist today and life cannot change with time; often paired with religious themes in opposition of evolution
20
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Reproductive Isolation
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what a species is defined as; people of the same species can mate together and produce fertile offspring
21
Q
Taxonomy
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science concerned with classification, specifically of organisms
22
Q
Binomial nomenclature
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“two names” – used in taxonomy where genus and species names are used to refer to living things (exp. homo sapiens)
23
Q
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
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aka theory of use and disuse; idea that organisms can pass on physical traits they acquired through their lifetime to their offspring (giraffe stretching neck throughout life leading to giraffes having longer necks overtime example)
24
Q
Catastrophism
A
theory that earth’s geographical features come from major cataclysmic events (flood, volcanic eruptions, etc.)
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Uniformitarianism
theory that earth's geological features are the result of gradual, long-term processes (wind, water, erosion, etc.) that continue to operate in present just as they did in the past
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Natural Selection
most important part of evolution; modification over time due to the environment; change in gene frequency in populations due to varying reproductive successes of individuals in said environment
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Principles of natural selection (8)
1. there is biological variation in all species (natural selection can only act on traits that can vary)
2. the number of offspring produce outnumber the food supply
3. there is competition in any given environment (creates a challenge where favorable traits are needed)
4. greater fitness (more favorable traits) = survive and reproduce
5. the environment determines what traits are fit or beneficial
6. traits are inherited and passed down
7. favorable traits accumulate in a population overtime making generations distinct from past generations
8. geographical isolation contributes to new species
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Artificial Selection
humans specifically organizing the breeding between two organisms to have certain traits/features (has nothing to do with being a result of change overtime due to environment)
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Fitness
having favorable traits that ensure reproductive success; an ability to survive and reproduce/pass along your genes
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Reproductive success
number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age, or individuals' genetic contribution to next generation
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Selective agent
relevant in artificial selection; in the case of dog breeding, humans act as a selective agent -- they decide what traits will be passed on and what traits will not
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Selective pressure
forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals
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Sexual selection
type of natural selection; operates on only one sex within a species; result of competition for mates and can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to traits
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Genetics
how genes work, how traits are passed down, and how variation is produced
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Organelles
structures within a living cell (exp. nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, etc.)
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Nucleus
contains genetic info (like chromosomes) that controls cell function, DNA, RNA, etc
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DNA
two chains of nucleotides; double-stranded molecule containing genetic code; carries info needed for cellular function; substance of heredity
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mtDNA
mitochondrial DNA; DNA found in the mitochondria and inherited only from the mother
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Somatic cells
all the cells in the body except the ones involved in reproduction; directs cell activity; contains 46 chromosomes
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Gametes
reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals); transmits genetic information; contains 23 chromosomes (one set)
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Nucleotide
basic units of the DNA molecule; made up of 3 components: a sugar, a phosphate, and one of the 4 DNA bases – C, G, T, or A)
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DNA replication
cells copying its DNA before cell division
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Denaturation
first step of DNA replication; enzymes break apart the bonds of the bases of previously joined nucleotide strands; leaves bases exposed
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Annealing
second step of DNA replication; exposed bases attract their complementary unattached DNA nucleotides; they pair with the same bases they were with previously (just a new one)
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Extension
previous standing copy replaced by exact copy and the replication is complete
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Protein synthesis
takes place outside of the nucleus; manufacture of proteins – assembly of amino acids into functional protein molecules
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RNA
single-stranded molecule; has a different sugar and base than DNA (uracil instead of thymine -T); essential to protein synthesis
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mRNA
messenger RNA; carries the DNA code through the nucleus membrane to the ribosome during protein synthesis
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tRNA
transfer RNA; binds to specific amino acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis
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Transcription
first step of protein synthesis; copy DNA code into mRNA because DNA molecule can’t leave the nucleus
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Translation
second and final step of protein synthesis; tRNA assist in the assembly of proteins by bringing amino acid to ribosome where it joins with another amino acid according to the sequence the mRNA calls for and forms a molecule that will either be a protein or part of a protein
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Uracil vs. Thymine
uracil is the replacement for thymine in RNA molecules; they both combine to A (adedine); uracil facilitates instructions to leave nucleus and make its way to ribosomes
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Gene
sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in a protein
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Regulatory genes
genes that act solely to control the expression of other genes; can turn certain genes on and off at different parts of life
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Homeobox (hox genes)
type of regulatory gene; directs the development of the overall body plan and segmentation of body tissue (dictates where arms go, positioning of facial features, etc.); exists in same construction in many different species
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Diploid
identical daughter cell after mitosis; has two full sets of chromosomes
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Haploid
4 daughter cells after meiosis; one incomplete set of chromosomes
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Mutation
change in DNA; change in DNA bases as well as changes in chromosome number and/or structure
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Chromatin
loose form of DNA
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Chromosome
discrete structures composed of DNA and proteins
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Autosome
all chromosomes except for sex chromosomes; has genetic info for physical characteristics (except sex determination); 22 pairs in humans = 44 in total
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Sex chromosome
X and Y chromosomes; governs sex determination; 2 chromosomes (XX or XY)
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Mitosis
simple cell division; process by which somatic cells divide into two identical daughter cells (diploids)
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Meiosis
cell division in ovaries and testes (reproductive organs); involves 2 divisions and results in 4 daughter cells, each contain only half the DNA/original number of chromosomes (haploids)
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Recombination
exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes during meiosis; important sources of genetic variation
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Random assortment
randomly separating chromosomes during meiosis; chromosomes independently separate from one another creating genetic variation
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Nondisjunction
failure of chromosome strands to separate completely during cell division; failure with meiosis
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Dominant
trait expressed in the presence of a different allele (i.e., in heterozygotes will be the traits physically expressed despite the presence of another allele)
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Recessive
trait not expressed in the presence of a dominant trait; traits that isn’t expressed in heterozygotes; needs 2 copies of recessive allele in order to have the trait
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Principle of Segregation
one of Mendel's principles; genes have two alleles (bb, BB, or Bb) and when gametes are forming during meiosis this principle states that these alleles separate so each gamete can contain an allele (exp. in the case of a heterozygous gene -- one gamete will have an B while the other has a b); you only contribute one allele as a parent, not both
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Principle of Independent Assortment
one of Mendel's principles; states that the emergence of one trait will not affect the emergence of another (exp. an animal's hair color is unrelated to its tail length; the traits are inherited independently)
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Homozygous
having the same allele at the same locus on both chromosomes (TT or tt)
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Heterozygous
having different alleles at the same locus (Tt)
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Genotype
genetic makeup of an individual/direct reading of genes
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Phenotype
observable or detectable physical characteristics of organism/detectable expression of a genotype
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Genotype/phenotype ratio
genotype ratio: ratio of gene combinations in an offspring (exp. In the case of two flowers with Bb alleles – BB:Bb:bb = 1:2:1)
phenotype ratio: ratio of visible characteristics in offspring (exp. Purple:white = 3:1)
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Mendellian traits
traits passed down through generations based on the dominant and recessive alleles of one gene; traits of simple inheritance (pattern of inheritance where a single gene controls a trait)
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Codominance
expression of two alleles in heterozygotes; neither allele is dominant or recessive and the both influence phenotype (exp, AB blood types – people express both blood types rather than one dominating the other)
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Pedigree chart
diagram of mating and offspring in a family over span of generations; shows way traits (usually mendelian) are passed across generations
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Polygenic
multiple genes influence the phenotype (exp. Stature, skin color, eye color, hair color, etc.); many polygenic traits can be influenced by environmental factors (sunlight, nutrition, etc.)
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Pleiotropy
one gene influences more than 1 phenotype (exp. Down syndrome -- an extra chromosome --- can affect brain development, facial structure, etc.)
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Allele
alternate forms of a gene; occur in same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern same trait, but because they’re different, their action may result in different expression of that trait
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Microevolution
shift in number of people who have a certain trait within a species (change is allele frequency)
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Macroevolution
changes happening after many generations (such as the appearance of a new species or the extinction of one)
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Gene flow
exchange of genes between populations; humans can do that easily with the various travel methods we have
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Genetic drift
change in allele/gene frequency due to chance/random factors in a small population
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Founder effect
type of genetic drift; small population leaves parent population, establishing a new population and leading to a different genetic makeup amongst this new population
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Hybrid
aka heterozygotes (have two diff alleles allowing offspring to vary)
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Locus
location on chromosome where a given gene occurs
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Evolution
change in allele/gene frequency from on generation to the next (doesn’t mean a certain trait goes away completely)
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Red queen hypothesis
evolution can never stop, if other things in environment are changing everything else has to change as well to stay alive (exp. the predator and prey must be constantly evolving to avoid extinction)
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Homologies
similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor; product of shared evolutionary ancestry (exp. Forelimbs of vertebrates: bat’s wing, human arm, whale flipper and dog leg)
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Analogies
similarities between organisms based strictly on common function – no assumed common evolutionary descent (exp. Bats and butterflies both have wings; NOT based on shared evolutionary ancestry but because of similar environmental needs)
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Ancestral
traits shared across evolutionary history; trait inherited from common ancestor and has remained relatively unchanged over time
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Derived
trait that has shifted from ancestral history and distinguishing them from their ancestors and related species (exp. Horses evolved to have hooves despite descending from same common ancestor of humans and other mammals that had five digits – due to it being better fit for their environment)
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Phylogenetic tree
diagram ancestor/descendant relationships; shows how organisms are related through evolution
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Sexual dimorphism
variation between biological sexes in a species
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Intraspecific
genetic variation within a species
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Interspecific
genetic variation across different species
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Dental formula
describes pattern of teeth in a quarter of the mouth
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Continental drift
theory that earth’s continents were once joined as a single landmass and have since moved apart from their original positions; earth's continents move/drift relative to each other over time
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Systematics (4)
way of tracing evolutionary relationships; focuses on ancestral and derived traits; hypothesizes ancestor-descendant relationships; uses phylogenetic charts
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Cladistics
focuses solely on derived traits; classifies organisms based on shared characteristics (not necessarily any evolutionary relationship)
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Clade
group of organisms that consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants
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Cladogram
used in cladistics; chart/diagram displaying relationship between CHARACTERISTICS of living organisms (not about genetic/ancestral relationships like a phylogenetic tree)
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Ecological niche
role a species occupies in an ecosystem (includes environments it can tolerate, resources it uses, interactions with other organisms, environment, etc.)
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Heterodont
different teeth types; having more than one type of tooth
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Endothermic
ability to generate and regulate own body temperature
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Adaptive radiation
process by which species rapidly diversifies into many different species; rapid expansion and diversification of life-forms into new ecological niches
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Punctuated equilibrium
process of macroevolution; idea that evolutionary development is marked by periods of inactivity with “spurts” of speciation (formation of new distinct species in course of evolution) between long periods of little to no change
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Phyletic gradualism
process of macroevolution; idea that evolution happens slowly over time
