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ap exam Flashcards

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1
Q

hydroxyl group

A

OH

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2
Q

carbonyl group

A

C - - O

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3
Q

carboxyl group

A

COOH

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4
Q

macromolecule types

A

carbohydrates- monosaccharides, polysaccharides; CHO

lipids- glycerol fatty acids, no polymers; CHOP

nucleic acids- nucleotides, DNA and RNA; CHONP

proteins- amino acids, polypeptides; CHONS

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5
Q

groups in carbohydrates

A

carbonyl group and hydroxyl groups

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6
Q

storage polysaccharides

A

plants store starch; animals store glycogen

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7
Q

structural polysaccharides

A

cellulose: tough substance that forms cell walls
chitin: forms exoskeleton of arthropods

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8
Q

amino acid groups

A

amino group, carboxyl group, variable side chain (R)

*side chains interact to determine shape and function of proteins

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9
Q

nucleotide parts

A

nitrogenous base (either pyrimidines or purines), five carbon sugar, phosphate group

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10
Q

nucleus

A

contains chromosomes

nucleolus is dense region where rRNA is synthesized

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11
Q

ER

A

synthesize membranes

compartmentalize cell

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12
Q

lysosomes

A

hydrolyze macromolecules and recycle cell materials

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13
Q

peroxisomes

A

catalyze reactions that produce H2O2

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14
Q

cytoskeleton

A

anchor organelles

allow for movement of vesicles and organelles and/or the whole cell

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15
Q

passive transport examples

A

diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion

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16
Q

active transport examples

A

pumps
contransport
exocytosis
endocytosis

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17
Q

catabolic vs anabolic pathways

A

catabolic: pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
anabolic: pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler molecules

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18
Q

induced fit

A

enzymes will change the shape of their active site to allow the substrate to bind better

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19
Q

enzyme catabolism

A

enzyme helps break down complex molcules

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20
Q

enzyme anabolism

A

enzyme helps build complex molecules

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21
Q

optimal conditions

A

higher temps and certain pH allow for enzymes to function optimally

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22
Q

cofactors vs inhibitors

A

cofactors are non protein molecules that assist in enzyme function (coenzymes are organic cofactors)

inhibitors reduce the activity of a certain enzyme (competitive, non competitive,

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23
Q

photosynthesis

A

location is chloroplast

stomata are pores in leaves that allow CO2 and O2 out

stroma is fluid, thylakoids are stacks of grana, chlorophyll is green pigment in thylakoid membranes

6CO2+6H2O+energy—> C6H12O6+6O2

stages: light reactions and calvin cycle

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24
Q

light reactions

A

occur in thylakoid membrane; converts solar energy to chemical energy (NADPH and ATP)

chlorophyll absorbs photon of light and electron is boosted to excited attar so realized energy and this repeats until it reaches P680 pair of chlorophyll a molecules and electron is transferred to primary electron acceptor; H2O had been split into two electrons, two H+, and an O

excited electrons pass to PS I via electron transport chain

fallen electron make energy for ATP; ATP synthase uses H+ to make ATP

in PS I light energy excited electrons to P700 and electron go down second electron transport chain; NADP+ reductive ctalyzes transfer of electrons from Fd to NADP+; plus H+ to make NADPH

makes O2, ATP, and NADPH

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25
calvin cycle
uses ATP and NADH to reduce CO2 to sugar (G3P); synthesis of one G3P needs cycle three times carbon fixation: CO2 is attached to RuBP to form 3-phosphoglycerate reduction: 3-phosphglucerate is phosphorylated by ATP and becomes 1,3-phosphoglyceeate; NADPH donate electrons to 1,3-phosphoglycerate and reduces it to G3P; six G3P are formed but only one is net gain regeneration of RuBP: other five G3P are used to regenerate three RuBP; cycle is ready to take in CO2 again makes G3P, ADP, NADP+
26
C4 and CAM plants
C4: stomata partially close to conserve water CAM: open stomata at night and close during day
27
cellular respiration
C6H12O6+6O2—>6CO2+6H2O glycolysis: occurs in cytosol splits glucose (6C) into 2 pyruvates (3C) pyruvate oxidation: if oxygen is present, pyruvate enters mitochondria; pyruvates is oxidized into acetyl coA; CO2 and NADH produced citric acid cycle/krebs cycle: occurs in mitochondrial matrix turns acetyl CoA into citrate and releases CO2; also produces ATP; electrons transferred to NADH and FADH2 oxidative phosphorylation: consists of ETC and chemiosmosis ETC is located in inner membrane of mitochondria; as electrons fall, proteins alternate between reduced and oxidized state; final electron acceptor is oxygen; H+/proton gradient created as proteins shuttle electrons and pump H+. chemiosmosis involves ATP synthase so as H+ flow though ATP is synthesized
28
anaerobic respiration
generates ATP using ETC in absence of oxygen happens to prokaryotes and final electron acceptors are sulfates or nitrates
29
fermentation
generates ATP without ETC extension of glycolysis by recycling NAD+
30
ways of cell contact
direct contact local signaling long-distance signaling
31
cell signaling stages
reception: ligand binds to receptor transduction: signal is converted response: cell response is offered
32
types of receptors
``` plasma membrane (G protein coupled receptors and ligand-gated ion channels) intracellular ```
33
signal transduction pathway regulation
phosphorylation by protein kinase and dephosphorylation by protein phosphotase
34
organization of DNA
before cell division cells must organize and package their DNA DNA wraps around his tone proteins to form nucleosides that form chromatic which condense into chromosomes centromere: region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached kinetochore: proteins attached to centromere that link each sister chromatid to mitotic spindle
35
types of chromosomes
autosome and sex chromosomes
36
main sources of genetic variation in meiosis
synapsis/crossing over: homologous chromosomes pair up and connect to form a tetrad and DNA is exchanged independent orientation (metaphase I); tetrads line up at metaphase plate random fertilization: any sperm can fertilize any egg
37
epistasis
phenotypic expression of gene atone locus affects gene at another locus
38
polygenic inheritance
effect of two or more genes acting on a single phenotype
39
DNA structure
backbone made of sugar-phosphate and center made of nucleotide pairings
40
DNA replication
helipads separates DNA, single strand binding proteins prevent and topoisomerase DNA from resisting being unwinded primase adds RNA primers then DNAP III adds DNA bases; on lagging strand, okazaki fragments are DNA added by DNAP III DNAP I fills in gaps of where RNA primers have been removed by adding DNA ligase seals up fragments in both strands
41
since there is no way to finish replication on the 5’ end of the lagging strand because DNAP III can only add nucleotides on the 3’ end, DNA would become shorter over generations. what prevents this?
telomerase adds telomeres that do not code for genes but are repeating units of short nucleotide sequences
42
transcription steps
initiation: RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter region of DNA elongation: RNA polymerase opens up DNA and reads the triplet code of the template strand; pairs complementary RNA nucleotides termination: RNA polymerase transcribes sequence of DNA called the polyadenylation signal sequence
43
pre-mRNA modifications
5’ cap: 5’ end of pre-mRNA receives a modified cap poly-A tail: 3’ end of pre-mRNA receives adenine nucleotides RNA splicing: sections of pre-mRNA called introns are removed and then exons are joined together so a single gene can code for more than one kind of polypeptide
44
sites of large subunit of ribosome
amino acid site, polypeptide site, exit site
45
steps of translation
initiation: small ribsomal subunit binds to mRNA and charged tRNA binds to start codon on mRNA elongation: tRNA comes into A site and mRNA is moved through ribosome and it’s codons are read; tRNA moves to P site tRNA in P site goes to E site termination: stope codon in mRNA reaches A site
46
genetic drift
chance events that cause a change in allele frequency’s from one generation to the next bottleneck effect founder effect
47
modes of natural selection
directional selection stabilizing selection dispersive selection
48
comparative morphology and homology
comparative morphology: analysis of the structures of living and extinct organisms homology: characteristics in related species that
49
types of homology
embryonic homology: many species have similar embryonic development vestigial structures: structures that are conserved even though they no longer have a use molecular homology: many species share similar DNA and amino acid sequences
50
homologous structures
characteristics that are similar in two species because they share a common ancestor
51
convergent evolution
similar adaptations that have evolved in distantly related organisms due to similar environments
52
analogous structures
structures that are similar but have separate evolutionary origins
53
modes of speciation
allopathic speciation: physical barrier divides population or small population is separated from main population; populations are geographically isolated so prevents gene flow and likely caused by natural disasters sympatric speciation: new species evolved while still inhabiting same geographic region as ancestral species; usually due to exploitation of a new niche
54
speciation occurs because of reproductive isolation; two types of reproductive isolation are
prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or hinder fertilization (habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, or gametic isolation) postzygotic barriers:: prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable and fertile adult (reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown)
55
paces of speciation
punctuated equilibrium: when evolution occurs rapidly after a long period of stasis gradualism: when evolution occurs slowly over many years
56
types of evolution/speciation
divergent evolution adaptive radiation convergent evolution
57
RNA world hypothesis
proposes RNA could have been earliest genetic mayerial
58
innate behaviors
fixed action patterns: sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a stimulus migration signal: stimulus generated and transmitted from one animal to another directed movements: movements toward or away from a stimulus
59
learned behaviors
imprinting: long-lasting behavioral response to an individual spatial learning: establishing memories based upon spatial structure of animal’s surroundings associative learning: ability to associate one environmental feature with another social learning: learning through observations and imitations of observed behaviors
60
responses in plants
phototropism: directional response that allows plants to grow towards light photoperiodism: allows plants to develop in response to day length; plants flower only at certain times physical and chemical defenses against herbavory pH of soil affects plants
61
interspecific interactions
``` competition predation herbivory symbiosis facilitation ```
62
what is species diversity dependent on?
species richness and relative abundance
63
keystone species
not usually abundant, but other species in an ecosystem rely on them because of their important ecological niches
64
disturbances
ecological succession: gradual process by which the species composition of a community changes and develops over time after a disturbancd
65
main threats to biodiversity
habitat loss invasive species over harvesting global change
66
biogeographical factors
large scale factors that contribute to a range of diversity observed latitude: species are more diverse in tropics than at poles due to climate area: larger areas are more diverse because they offer greater diversity of habitats

ap biology (12 decks)

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