Approaches Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
Why is Wilhelmina Wundt considered an important person in psychology?
A
He was the first person to acknowledge himself as a psychologist
2
Q
When did he release the first book in psychology?
A
1873
Published the first book in
psychology ‘Principles of
Physiological Psychology’
3
Q
When did he open the first psychology lab?
A
1879 he opened the first lab dedicated to experimental psychology at Leipzig Germany University
4
Q
Why did Wundts approach become known as structuralism?
A
Because he used scientific methods to study the human consciousness by breaking it’s structure down into smaller components, such as sensations and perceptions
5
Q
What does introspection interpreted to in latin?
A
Looking into
6
Q
What is introspection?
A
The process by which a person examines their inner world, by consciously observing their inner thoughts and emotions.
When we reflect on our thoughts, emotions, and
memories and examine what they mean, we are
engaging in introspection.
7
Q
What type of research technique is introspection?
A
Experimental self-observation
8
Q
Wundt had trained his participants to give detailed observations from his introspection. What was his aim?
A
- to shed light on the processes involved in the human consciousness
9
Q
How did Wundt train his participants?
A
- in Wundt’s lab, highly trained observers were presented with carefully controlled sensory events such as eating and listening to music
- these individuals were then asked to describe their mental experiences of these events
- Wundt believed that observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation
- the observations were repeated a numerous amount of times
10
Q
Wundts new scientific approach was based on two major assumptions?
A
- all behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)
- if behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions (predictability)
11
Q
The techniques used to explore these assumptions became known as the..?
A
Scientific approach
12
Q
The behaviourist approach
A
13
Q
We are born as a ‘tabula rasla’ what does this mean?
A
A blank slate
14
Q
Are are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
- Psychologists should only study observable and quantifiable behaviour
- All behaviour is learned from our environment. Because it is said we are born as a tabula rasla
- Humans are no different to animals and (should not be regarded as more complex
- Research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans
15
Q
Describe Pavlov’s dog classical conditioning process.
A
- dogs were used to how we can association to learn something
- dogs were shown a bowl of food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivated (unconditioned response) but when dog was shown a bell (neutral stimulus) there was no response
- so when given the food with the sound of the bell the dog began salivating (unconditioned response)
- the dog has now associated the sound of the bell with food so now when he hears the bell (conditioned stimulus), the dog produces a salivating response
16
Q
What did Pavlov demonstrate?
A
Repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
17
Q
What was operant conditioning?
A
Suggested that behaviour is the result of learning through consequences of our actions.
18
Q
What were the three types of reinforcement that willl affect behaviour?
A
- positive reinforcement - when a behaviour is followed by a desarable consequence (reward) and is more likely to be repeated
- negative reinforcement - when a behaviour is followed by a removal of an adverse consequence and is more likely to be repeated
Punishment - when a behaviour is followed by a unpleasant behaviour and is less likely to be repeated
19
Q
How did Skinner train the rats?
A
- the rat would press the lever and receive food through positive reinforcement as it would repeatedly press the lever for more food until it was full.
20
Q
AO3: Evaluation of The Behaviourist Approach
A
21
Q
Strengths of the behaviourist Approach:
1- contributed to recognition of psychology as a science
2- Real world Application
A
- The behaviourist approach led to scientific credibility. This is because it has contributed to the recognition of psychology as a science. The experimental methods used by Pavlov and skinner rejected the earlier emphasis in psychology on introspection and encouraged research that focused more on the objectives of behaviour. The emphasis on the scientific method has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour. These methods helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline, which in turn attracts more research and funding opportunities
A strength of the behaviorist approach is that it has Improved our modern understanding of human mental illnesses. For example we learn that phobias are thought to be the result of earlier unpleasant learning experience. Consequently psychologists have developed therapies such as systematic desensitisation. Also some addictions cub as gambling can be understood through operant conditioning, as the rewards of gambling can be seen as reinforcing negative behaviour. Therefore,
behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many and has real world application in understanding and treatment of A-typical behaviour.
22
Q
Disadvantages of Behaviourist Approach:
1- Use of Animals - Unethical
2- Ignores the role of cognition and emotional factors.
A
Encouraged use of animals in research. Using animals in research gives experimenters more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences playing a role . However many consider using animals in experiments to be unethical as there is loess protection from harm for non-humans subjects. Furthermore some argue that using animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour. Skinners operant conditioning may provide lots of information about rats but not to humans
Behaviourists ignore other explanations for behaviour for example the role of cognition and emotional factors. Skinner however countered this argument and stated that for behaviour to be investigated scientifically, it has to be directly measurable and observable, which cognitions are not. Furthermore he said that even the most complex behaviours can be explained by operant conditioning principles of learning by consequences
23
Q
Social Learning Theory
A
24
Q
What is the social learning theory?
A
Learning through observation and imitation performed by role models
25
When is imitation of role models more likely?
- if the child or adult identifies with them
- if the role model is of the same age and gender
- if the role model is influential or a powerful celeb
26
Who argued against classical and operant conditioning that it could not account for all behaviour?
Albert Bandura
27
What were the main ideas of the social learning theory?
1. Observation and imitation
2. Vicarious reinforcement
3. The role of meditation all processes
4. Modelling and identification
28
What did Bandura say about observation and imitation?
Give an example?
- agreed with behaviourists, all behaviour is learned from experience
- However, he said that we indirectly learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context
E.g children see, children do campaign - focuses on raising awareness that children imitate and copy what their parents do. They see their parents as role models
29
What did Bandura say about Vicarious reinforcement?
- for indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others, the individual may imitate this behaviour but only if the behaviour is seen as rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished so
- the individual observes the behaviour but most importantly observes the consequences
30
Give an example of vicarious reinforcement
- T and J help to tidy the books in the library. J is working hard and T is slacking off the librarian notices this. Instead of telling T off she praises J for his hard work. T learns that doing his job well will earn him praise and sets about imitating good behaviour from J
31
What did Bandura say about the role of meditation all processes?
SLT is often described as the bridge between behaviourist theory and the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental factors are involved in ;learning
- these mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine the probable consequences of that behaviour in the future
32
What are the 4 mental/ meditation all processes?
- attention and retention (capacity to remember) -(learning of behaviour)
- motor reproduction (ability to perform behaviour) and motivation - (drives the production of behaviour)
33
Unlike behaviourist, observed behaviour can be stored, then produced at a later time. Explain this?
E.g learning to drive a car
Attention - pay attention
Retention - remember the buttons
Motor production - practice on your own
Motivation - be on time for school
34
What did Bandura say about modelling and identification?
People (especially children) are more likely to imitate behaviour of those who they identify with. This is called modelling
- a person becomes a role model if they seem to possess similar characteristics to the observer and are attractive or have a high status.
- the role model doesn’t have to be present, media has influence on behaviour
35
Give an example of this?
Take this and put it on your chin - the person doesn’t actually put it on their chin but cheek. This shows that social behaviour is ;earned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others
36
What was the aim of Bandura’s key study?
- to see if aggression is learned
37
What method did Bandura use. Explain?
- 36 male and females - 72 children aged between 3-6 year old and placed them into one of 3 groups for 10 minutes
Aggressive model - the child played in a room while the adult shouted and hit the boob doll. They were further sub-divided by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating 4 conditions - Female model - 6f and 6m, male model - 6f and 6m
2. Non-aggressive model - the child played in a room with an adult playing with a construction set.
3. Control group - child did not see a model
Then after this the children were taken into a room with lot’s of aggressive toys and told they couldn’t play with any of the toys - this deliberately frustrated the kids. They were observed for twenty minutes
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what are the results?
children in the aggressive condition, showed more aggressive acts than those of the other two groups. Boys imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models
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AO3: Evaluation of SLT
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Strengths of SLT:
1- Real World Application - can explain many behaviours
Another strength is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles such as modelling imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others around them, including the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender roles. This increases the value of their approach as it can account for real world behaviour.
Unlike the behaviourist approach, Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism – the idea that we are influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. This element of choice suggests there is some free will in the way we behave, and is consistent with the fact that Bandura recognises the influence of cognitive variables on social learning. In this sense, we are able to store a particular behaviour we have seen and choose the most appropriate time to reproduce it. In behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour come together, there is no element of choice. This is a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our own environment.
- Fox and Bailenson (2009). Found that humans were more likely to imitate computer generated “virtual human’’ who were similar to themselves
- Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who agreed to and then actually did donate blood.
- Myers’s (2015) confirmed the importance of vicarious learning for the effectiveness of workplace teams. These studies demonstrate the support for different aspects of SLT adding credibility to key principles of this theory.
41
Limitations of Social Learning theory:
1- Bandura - artificial lab study - possibility of demand characteristics
2- Issue of Causality - Not clear whether people learn behaviour from role models or if they seek out role models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes they already favour.
- Bandura used an artificial strictly controlled experimental method . As a result there is a possibility of demand characteristics, whereby the children pick up on cues in the environment, guess the aim of the investigation and adjust their behaviour accordingly. Lowering the internal validity of the study. Therefore the children may have been acting in a more aggressive way because they believed that was expected of them.
It is not clear if people learn behaviour from models or if they seek out models who exhibit the same behaviour or attitudes they already favour. Siegel and McCormick (2006) argue that who hold deviant attitudes and values are more likely to associate themselves with similarly inclined peers because they are more fun to be with and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT. Also struggles to explain complex ideas like gender development.
42
The cognitive approach
43
What is the cognitive approach?
The examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory and consciousness.
44
What is inference/ inferring?
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
- making logical conclusions on the basis of evidence and reasoning
45
What are the key aspects of the cognitive approach?
- the role of schemas
- the role of theoretical and computer models
- the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
46
What are schemas?
- a package of beliefs & expectations that come from prior experience. They help us to interpret and respond to new situations
47
Explain how are schemas an example of top-down information processing?
- provide us with expectations of what will happen around the world, rather than us requiring to process every single detail all the time.
- schemas allow us to make sense of ambiguous situations by ‘filling in the gaps’ in our know;ledge. They enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete which makes it easier to deal with complex situations. However schemas can lead to errors in information processing such as prejudice and discrimination
48
What are theoretical models?
These are simplified representations based on current research evidence. These are often in picture from represented by boxes and arrows that represent flow directions and stages e.g the working memory model
49
What are computer models?
The development of computers and computer programming led to a focus on the way sensory information is passed through the system. Using a computer analogy, information is passed through t the senses, encoded into memory and then combined with previously stored information to complete a task
Analogies can also be made between the
workings of a computer and the functions of the human brain. For example, the analogy of Long-term memory being the hard disk and short-term memory being viewed as the computer RAM has been applied to the human brain. Computer models of memory have been particularly useful in the development of Artificial intelligence AI.
50
What is cognitive neuroscience?
This is the scientific of the influence of brain structure on mental processes (cognition)
51
How was this field produced?
Scanning the living brain while it is actively processing information
52
What type of scan do cognitive neuroscience use?
Uses non-invasive brain scanning techniques like PET and MRIs to understand which parts of the brain are active while specific internal mental processes are being used.
53
AO3: Evaluation of the cognitive approach
54
A strength of the cognitive approach is that is has real world application explain how?
Cognitive research into memory and the effects of misleading information has reduced the eye-witness testimony in court cases, and led to major reforms in police procedure, like the use of cognitive interview. Additionally understanding thinking patterns helped professionals understand and treat mental illnesses such as depression using therapies such as CBT.
55
explain another strength of the cognitive approach?
one strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective, scientific methods. cognitive psychologists have always employed controlled and rigorous methods of study such as lab studies. This is good because it means that cause and effect links can be established. For example, in Loftus and Palmer's study, where the careful controls allowed a cause and effect link between the IV (emotiveness of the critical verb) and the DV (speed estimates in mph) to be made. in addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience allowed the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology come together to enhance the scientific basis of study. this means that the study of the mind has established a credible scientific basis.
56
explain how the cognitive approach is deterministic, why's this good?
the cognitive approach recognises that our cognitive system operates with certain limits, but we are free to make decisions before responding to a stimulus (soft determinism). this is in contrast to the behavioural approach which suggest that we are passive to the environment and lack free choice in our behaviour. hence the cognitive approach takes a more flexible middle-ground position and is more in line with our subjective sense of free will
57
what is a limitation of the cognitive approach?
one limitation of this approach is that it is based on machine reductionism. although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers. The computer analogy has been criticised. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotions on cognitive processes. For example, emotions and motivation has shown to influence accuracy of recall in eye-witness accounts. These factors are not considered within a computer analogy. This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
58
what is another limitation of the cognitive approach?
One limitation of the cognitive approach is the cognitive approach is that it relies on inference. Cognitive psychologist use inference as mental processes are private and can not be observed. Therefore this is a limitation as the cognitive approach is based upon assumptions of mental processes and can not state straight facts.
59
the biological approach
60
what is the biological approach?
The approach assumes all human behaviour has a biological origin. its the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour
61
what are our genes?
they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features such as eye-colour, height and other psychological factors such as mental disorders and intelligence. genes are inherited
62
what is a phenotype?
what is a genotype?
phenotype - is observable characteristics and traits due to the expression of genes and can be affected by the environment
genotype - particular set of genes that a person possess
63
explain how the MZ and DZ twin experiment shows support for the genetic explanation.
Twin studies are used to see how likely characteristics are inherited by comparing concordance rates between the twin pairs (the extent to which twins share same characteristics).
MZ - same DNA but grown in a different environment. so if intelligence is the same must be due to genetics but if different due to environment
DZ - different DNA but grown in same environment, so if intelligence is the same due to environment and if different due to genetics
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what did McGuffin et al find out MZ and DZ?
if one identical twin has depression, there is a 46% the other twin will develop depression.
another research found that MZ twins have a higher concordance rate of developing schizophrenia as well.
65
what is meant by the influence of biological structures?
According to bio psychologists, the brain, the CNS, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the endocrine system determine behaviour.
The CNS transmits signals through nerve cells (neurons).
Human behaviour caused by neuronal actions includes eating and breathing
66
what is the frontal lobe linked with?
Speech/language production, motor skills, personality, attention, reward-seeking behaviours
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what is the parietal lobe linked with?
Linked to processing sensory info
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what is the temporal lobe associated with?
Language/object recognition, formation of visual memories, production and comprehension of speech
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what is the occipital lobe associated with?
Associated with visual perception
70
describe the case study of Phineas Gage
After the accident, he displayed antisocial and inappropriate behaviours – this case study has been used to demonstrate the influence of biological structures.
71
describe the influence of neurochemistry?
- imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters are associated with atypical behaviour. for example too little serotonin associated with depression and too much dopamine associated with schizophrenia
72
what did Crockett et al (2008) find about neurotransmitters?
abnormally low levels of serotonin is associated with aggressive behaviour, indicating that this neurotransmitter is important in regulating behaviour and impulse control
73
explain how do hormones affect behaviour?
hormones travel in the bloodstream where they travel to target cells which are activated by them specifically. Carre et al (2006) found that high levels of testosterone are associated with defensiveness and territoriality in a study investigating the behaviour of ice hockey players
74
explain how evolution explained behaviour?
- specific characteristics which aid survival/ are an advantage to an organism and are passed down and other which are not needed die out.
75
explain research by Buss (1994)?
- did a survey of heterosexual mate selction.
- across 37 countries studied
- he found that men preferred good looks youth and chastity, while women preferred good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability.
- this shows that certain behaviours and traits have evolved in both male and females
76
AO3: Evaluation of the biological approach
77
explain how evolutionary processes help behaviour?
memory - humans remember more things in order to survive. for example where food resources are etc.
attachment - babies have an innate tendency to survive do this by crying cooing etc.
metal disorder - people have phobias but for survoival, innate people adapt to them.
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Strengths of the Biological Approach
1- Highly Scientific
2- Real World Application
The biological approach utilises reliable methods of research. For example, some research into genetics and neurochemistry make use of a range of highly scientific methods such as MRIs, EEGs, twin and family studies and drug trials. this enables us to possibly accurately measure the biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to misinterpretation and observer bias. Therefore the biological approach increases it's credibility by use of scientific methods.
increased understanding of biochemical processes has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illness. For example, treatments for OCD using antidepressants such as SSRI's to increase the level of serotonin in the brain and BZ's which promote the action of GABA, reducing anxiety. This is a strength as medication enables people to manage their condition and live a relatively decent life without their medical condition interfering thus giving them a some what normal life.
79
Limitations of the biological approach:
1- Drug therapies = serious side effects.
2- Deterministic
COUNTER: However, drug therapies such as antidepressant can have serious side effects, for example, some people can experience mild indigestion, while others may experience more serious side effects like hallucinations, erection problems and high blood pressure. In addition, BZ's renowned for being highly addictive, therefore recommended for short term treatment. Consequently the side effects diminish the effectiveness of drug treatments.
The biological approach can be criticised for being deterministic. This is the idea that our behaviour is controlled by internal forces such as genetic inheritance, neurotransmitter levels and evolution. Although these factors clearly play a part in a persons behaviour, free will must be taken in to account. We are all free to choose how to behave and act and the criminal justice system in this country holds people personally responsible for their behaviour. For this reason the biological approach must be criticised for being deterministic as it does not consider free will when explaining a persons behaviour, emphasis is put on a persons biological make up.
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Psychodynamic Approach
81
which psychologist is proposed the foundation of the psychodynamic approach?
Sigmund Freud
82
briefly describe the psychodynamic approach?
he proposed the notion of the unconscious on behaviour
83
what are the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- much of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives
- childhood is a critical period of development
- mental disorders derive from unresolved, unconscious conflict originating in childhood
- resolution occurs through accessing and coming to terms with repressed ideas and conflicts
84
what are the main key points of the psychodynamic approach?
1. The role of the unconscious
2. Tripartite Personality
3. Defence Mechanisms
4.Psychosexual Stages
85
What was the metaphor used by Freud to describe the unconscious?
- vast parts of the mind are inaccessible to conscious awareness. the metaphor of the iceberg was used to describe this
- consciousness is the small part of the human mind (at the top of the iceberg), and the unconscious which takes up the larger proportion of the human mind (at bottom of the iceberg), even though we are not able to directly access it at will.
86
what is the conscious mind?
The part of the mind we are aware of – everyday thoughts and feelings
87
what is the preconscious mind?
Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times, but easily recalled
88
what is the unconscious mind?
Unconscious: The deep dark shameful part!
Repressed thoughts, memories and feelings
89
what forms part of the unconscious?
traumatic events and memories that have been repressed into the unconscious, kept there and hidden from conscious awareness
90
can we see these repressed thoughts?
some psychodynamic theorists believe that these events/ memories are never truly forgotten and can be explored through psychoanalysis
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how can the unconscious mind reveal itself?
through Freudian slips
92
what are Freudian slips?
can be expressed through the 'slip of the tongue' or through dreams and fantasies
93
what is the tripartite personality?
Freud suggested that personality is made of 3 components: ID, Ego and superego
94
what is the ID?
the ID is present at birth and is driven by pleasure and instant gratification. it operates on instinct and suggests we have selfish urges.
birth - 18 months
95
what is the Ego?
the Ego develops usually around the age of 3 and is tasked with taming and balancing the demands of the ID and superego. the child begins to understand that we can not always have our way and we have to act rationally.
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what is the Superego?
the superego usually develops around the age of 5, and controls our sense of morality which is internalised by the child due to parental discipline.
97
what part of the mind is the ID, ego and superego?
ID = unconscious
Ego = conscious
Superego = unconscious
98
What are defence mechanisms?
defence mechanisms are used by the ego in order to cope with the conflicting demands of the other two parts of personality: the id and the superego.
99
how does the ego work using defence mechanisms?
the ego works by distorting reality so that the individual can continue with their everyday life without unpleasant feelings or memories dominating their conscious awareness.
100
what are the tree types of defence mechanisms?
repression, Denial and displacement
101
what is repression?
forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
102
what is denial?
refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
103
what is displacement?
transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotions onto a substitute target
104
what is the effect of repression on behaviour?
there is no recall of the event or situation
105
what is the effect of denial on behaviour?
someone may believe that the situation is not negative and that therefore should not cause anxiety. this is not positive thinking but merely a resistance to accept reality.
106
what is the effect of displacement on behaviour?
someone may focus very strong emotion but focus it on an uninvolved person or object
107
what are psychosexual stages?
according to Freud, children pass through five psychosexual stages of development. during each stage, the child has desires for bodily pleasures denied and redirected by it's parents until they focus exclusively on the appropriate sexual outlet for the given stage. Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage
108
what happens if the child fails to resolve the conflict at each of the psychosexual stage?
if a child fails to resolve conflict at the end of the psychosexual stage they may develop a fixation where they display certain behaviours/ characteristics in their adult life
109
what is the name of each psychosexual stage?
- Oral stage
- Anal stage
- Phallic stage
- Latent stage
- Genital stage
110
How long does the oral stage last for and what happens during the oral stage?
age 0-2
the infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, particularly sucking and biting.
111
what is the un-resolved conflict?
oral fixation due to early weaning: here a person might engage in behaviours like smoking, nail biting
112
How long does the anal stage last for and what happens during this stage?
age 2-3
the child gains pleasure from defeacating, this is the age that the child is potty trained
113
what is the unresolved conflict?
anal fixation can manifest in two ways:
- anal retentive: here a person might become an obsessive perfectionist if parents are strict about potty use
- anal explusive: here a person might be messy and thoughtless due to parents not being strict about potty use
114
what is the Phallic stage?
the major feature of this stage is the Oedipus complex in which infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father. It is during this stage that the superego develops. (girls develop the Electro complex)
115
what is the unresolved conflict?
a phallic fixation or phallic personal might manifest in reckless and narcissistic behaviours
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what is the latent stage?
the sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now become latent, so the individual can focus on the world around them and form friendships. So earlier conflicts are repressed.
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what is the genital stage?
the final stage culminates with the psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals to be directed towards the formation of adult formation of adult relationship
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what is the unresolved conflict?
a person who becomes fixated at the genital stage might struggle to form heterosexual relationships
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AO3: Evaluation of Psychodynamic Approach
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strength: the psychodynamic approach is influential.
Strength: Real world application
Freud theory was very influential. This means the approach has stimulated lots of further research focused on emotional development that occurs in early childhood and it's affects on adult behaviours and personality. For example, Bowlby’s research into attachment, which suggest that periods of maternal deprivation in childhood can have long lasting negative psychological effects on adults, such as affectionless psychopathy and anti-social. This is positive as it has improved our understanding of attachments and the long-term effects of separation and maternal deprivation and revolutionised child welfare thus Freud remains one of the most influential psychologists of all time.
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has practical applications to therapy. Freud had brought into the world a new form of therapy - psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions back to the conscious mind so they can be dealt with. Therefore can be considered the forerunner to many modern day ' talking therapies' such as counselling. Therefore the psychodynamic approach has made a significant contribution to our understanding of human behaviour because psychoanalysis did not only help people with coping with their mental disorders but in doing so made a significant contribution to psychotherapy in modern day psychiatry.
Furthermore, there is empirical research to support the effectiveness of psychoanalysis. Biskup et al (2005) studied 36 patients undertaking psychoanalytic therapy. Results showed that 77% of patients had shown significant improvements. As well as research done by Bachrach et al, found that through meta-analysis of the effectiveness of psychotherapy is an affective treatment for many patients.
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Limitations: the psychodynamic approach is unscientific
One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable. The philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification. It is not open to empirical testing and can not be directly observed and measured. Many of Freud's concepts (such as the Id and the Oedipus complex) are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible, to test. Furthermore, his ideas were based on the subjective study of single individuals, such as Little Hans, which makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour. This suggests that Freud's theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than established fact
the psychodynamic approach has been criticised because it is deterministic. This is because it states that all behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces and is a result of traumatic repressed childhood traumas/ events/ experiences. As a result this means that we have no free will to choose our behaviour, it's outside our control. Freud actually believed that free will was an illusions and that our behaviour was influenced and controlled by unconscious forces. However, this has been refuted by many people as it removes responsibility and accountability for people's actions. therefore the psychodynamic approach may be limited in this regard because of it's deterministic view of behaviour.
Freud's theory has been criticised for gender bias. his obsession with the Oedipus complex is intensely androcentric, and many would claim this makes them irrelevant to the understanding of women. But female psychologists such as Melanie Klein have shown that gender-bias theories can be adapted to provide useful insight into female behaviour. Therefore, while Freud's original theories can demonstrate a significant gender bias, his work has been used to develop important and influential theories that apply to women
The psychoanalytic theory has been criticised for being culturally biased. A ll of Freud's patients came from the 'Viennese middle class' and his universal generalisations were based mainly on this highly unrepresentative sample. he called his therapy 'The talking cure', and there is considerate evidence to suggest that it is only suitable for cultures where the discussion of personal problems.
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Humanistic Approach
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what is the humanistic approach?
the humanistic approach suggests that every individual has free will. This means that everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny, even within the constraints that exist in life from outside forces
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what are the three main assumptions of the humanistic approach?
1. every individual is unique - no point trying to generalise to groups (age, gender) as there are too many differences between groups
2. we have free will - we will have the ability to choose what we can do and are in control of our behaviour . we do have constraints, law/social rules. However we have a choice
3. people should be viewed holistically - no point in looking at just one aspect of the individual, as this could miss other reasons for distress.
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What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
Maslow's (1943) hierarchy of needs is an enduring model of psychological development. This is a Five-levelled hierarchy in which basic physiological needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as self-esteem and self-actualisation can be achieved.
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Describe Maslow's Hierarchy of needs (1943) from lowest to highest?
At the lowest level, we have physiological needs, then safety and security followed by love and belonging and then self-esteem
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what are your physiological needs?
This is the need to eat, drink, sleep, breathe, clothing, shelter.
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What are your Safety and security?
This is the need to resources, money, employment and family and health
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What is love and belonging?
A person needs to feel loved, from friends, family and a sexual partner
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When is self-esteem reached?
encompass confidence, strength, self-belief, personal and social acceptance, and respect from others
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what is self-actualisation?
this is where spirituality, creativity and acceptance of the world as it is, seeing the world with awe and wonder, without any fear or inhibitions.
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Why did Maslow suggest about the hierarchy of needs?
it is often the case that individuals work up the Hierarchy step by step, but recognised that it is not always the case for everybody, for example, someone might need to address their need for self-esteem before finding love.
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What did Carl rogers say about congruency?
He argues that for personal growth to be achieved their self-concept must be equivalent or congruent to one’s ideal self
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What happens when there is too much of a big gap between self-concept and ideal self?
The person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feeling’s of self worth that arise from Congruency
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What did Rogers suggest about the two basic needs that human need?
- the need for self-worth and the needs for unconditional positive regard
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How are self-worth and unconditional positive regard achieved?
Bothe merge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood, and later with friends and partners. An individuals self worth has a direct impact on psychological well being
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What did Rogers say causes feeling of worthlessness and low self-esteem?
This can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive self-regard from parents. These parents impose conditions of worth. Therefore conditions of worth cause psychological issues.
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What are conditions of worth?
conditions of worth are constraints an individual believes are put upon them by significant others that they deem necessary to gain positive regard. It is possible that a person will only feel self-acceptance should they meet these conditions of worth set by others which can produce feelings of incongruence.
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What was developed in order to reduce the gap between self-concept and ideal self
Roger’s developed client centred therapy (a.k.a counselling)
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Thus, during Client centred therapy, a client receives…?
Unconditional positive regard that they failed to receive as children to help
resolve conditions of worth and guide clients towards self-actualisation, focusing on the authentic self.
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Explain how providing unconditional self regard, improves a persons self-esteem and feelings of worth?
When expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition, the client feels sufficiently supported, their conditions of worth affecting their self-concept will dissipate enabling them to move towards their ideal self and how they want to behave, rather than how they should feel.
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AO3: Evaluation of the humanistic approach
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Strength: Real world application
Strength 2: Develops a Holistic Approach
+ Practical Application to Therapy = Rogers’ client-centred therapy has had a major impact on counselling psychology, and how such therapies are used both in the USA and the UK. This therapy is particularly beneficial due to acknowledging that individuals do have free will and do have the ability to improve themselves, through focussing on developing solutions to the patient’s current problems. This is in stark contrast with Freud’s psychotherapies, which tend to dwell upon childhood experiences and so may be frustrating for the patient who has identified the cause of their problems. Nonetheless, Roger’s client centred approach is not suitable for treating serious mental disorders, such as schizophrenia or depression.
+ Holistic Approach = The humanistic approach is unique in that it adopts holism, therefore focussing on the individual’s subjective experiences as a whole, as a method of investigating behaviour. This is in contrast with the cognitive approach (which sees the brain’s functions as analogous to computer), the biological approach (which sees humans purely as biological organisms which are made up of physiological processes) and behaviourism (where all behaviour is seen as the product of past reinforcement contingencies). Therefore, humanism is a refreshing alternative, compared to other reductionist explanations of behaviour.
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Limitation 1: unscientific
— Untestable and subjective concepts = As with Freud’s psychodynamic approach, humanism suffers from a lack of empirical evidence and no possibility of systematically observing and measuring the processes which it describes. Self-actualisation cannot be objectively measured, due to individual differences and a lack of a universal measuring scale. Similarly, congruence may also be up to personal judgement, especially as opinions of whether one has is their ‘ideal self’ will differ. This does little to improve the scientific credibility of both humanism and Psychology.
— A culture-bound explanation of behaviour = Maslow’s ideas of self-actualisation, the need to improve oneself, and congruence can be mostly viewed as attitudes typical of Western, individualist cultures where the needs of the individual are greater than the needs of the group. Therefore, due to this cultural bias, humanism may be more readily accepted by Western cultures who will identify more with these values, as opposed to Eastern collectivist cultures, where such a desire for personal growth may be seen as selfish considering that the needs of the group are greater than that of the individual.
