Issues and debates Flashcards

Question

what did this research show?

Answer 1

there is difficulty in distinguishing 'real' from culturally created gender differences

Answer 2

theories which are centred or focused or dominated on males/ men theories based on females

Answer 3

conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way or unconscious

Answer 4

white middle class Americans and theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world

Answer 5

Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) argued that there were two types of gender bias: alpha and beta

Answer 6

refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females.

Answer 7

Historically, since the 1980s, schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men compared to women, whereas before this time there had been no significant differences. This is an example of alpha bias, according to Cotton et al, because women are more likely to be able to continue working, maintain good interpersonal relationships and show less distress than men. This means that the schizophrenic symptoms of women may be masked or not severe enough to merit a diagnosis. Freud argued that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women. His theory suggests that women are inferior as young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’, and he viewed femininity as failed form of masculinity.

Answer 8

this is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over the years and it is said that evolutionary perspective should not be used to justify gender differences

Answer 9

refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.

Answer 10

Biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both sexes. However, a beta bias can prompt more research: Taylor et al. (2002) found that females adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response in stressful/dangerous situations: Women are more likely to protect their offspring (tending) and form alliances with other women (befriending), rather than fight an adversary or flee there is also evidence of beta bias in psychological research. male and female paticipants are used in most studes but there is no attempt to analyse to see sex differences. it may be possible that researchers ignore the differential treatment between men and women. Rosenthal (1996) reported that male experimenter were more pleasant, friendly, honest, and encouraging with female participants than with male participants. this led Rosenthal to conclude ''male and female subjects may, psychologically, simply not be in the same experiment at all

Answer 11

Darwin's established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective in terms of mate selection. these views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises.

Answer 12

some psychologists have developed theories that emphasise the importance and value of women. Cornwell et al (2013) noted that females are better at learning as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value of and the positive attributes of women. As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes, which is important in reducing gender bias another way of reducing gender bias is to take a feminist approach. For example feminist psychology accepts that there are biological differences between males and females. Research by Eagly (1978) claims that females are less effective leaders then males. However the purpose of Eagly's claim is to help researchers develop training programmes aimed at increasing the number of female leaders in the world

Answer 13

— Bias in research methods = If theories and studies are gender biased, the research may find differences between genders but it may not be the genders that differ but simply the methods used to test or observe them. For example, Rosenthal (1966) found that male experimenters are more pleasant and encouraging to female participants and subsequently they perform better in tasks/male participants appeared to perform less well. Secondly, fewer women being appointed at senior research positions means that female concerns are less likely to be reflected in the experimental questions.

Answer 14

Sometimes Alpha bias theories heighten the value of women. For example, Chodorow (1978) viewed women as more relational and caring. Another example is that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males. this may be because women are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could be that the diagnostic system may be biased towards depression in men. The expectation that males should be able to 'pull themselves together' may highlight an issue within this system for diagnosing mental disorders

Answer 15

Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature. The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek word ‘idios’, which means ‘own’ or ‘private’.

Answer 16

Qualitative research methods such as: - case studies - unstructured interviews - thematic analysis

Answer 17

case studies provide an in-depth insight into an individual or small group which can be used to evaluate a theory

Answer 18

KF’s short-term forgetting of auditory information was greater than his forgetting of visual information, suggesting that short- term memory (STM) consists of multiple components. Consequently, Patient KF undermines the Multi-Store Model of Memory suggesting that STM is not one unitary component. Therefore, an individual case study can highlight flaws within a theory and significantly undermine other research.

Answer 19

Freud conducted very detailed investigations into the lives of his patients in an attempt to understand and help them overcome their psychological disorders. His most famous case studies include Little Hans and The Rat Man. While Freud did try to produce generalisations from his case studies, they are still viewed as an idiographic approach because each person’s psychological disorder derived from their unique childhood experiences.

Answer 20

Uses qualitative methods of data collection. This is beneficial and it produces an in-depth and more complete account of an individual = This may support existing theories or challenge general laws and lead to development of improved psychological theories, through the process of deduction. For example, the case studies conducted on HM and Clive Wearing demonstrated that different types of long-term memory are located in different areas of the brain. This led to the further research of localisation and memory.

Answer 21

Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic research.

Answer 22

The research methods used, such as case studies and unstructured interviews, lack scientific rigour = These methods rely heavily on individual and subjective interpretation. Therefore, conclusions are open to researcher bias, which reduces the reliability of the findings and the extent to which they can be generalised to other individuals. This translates to a lack of validity when developing theories and assumptions based upon the idiographic approach.

Answer 23

idiographic researchers respond to these criticisms by emphasising the evidence-based nature of their descriptions and conclusions, and the critical awareness embedded in research techniques like reflexivity, and often claim that the validity of their findings is more secure than that which rests entirely on statistical analysis.

Answer 24

While case studies can highlight a flaw in psychological theories and prompt further research, the case study method and other qualitative methods are extremely time consuming. Freud’s case study of Little Hans consists of almost 150 pages of verbatim quotes from Little Han’s father, as well as detailed descriptions of the events in Little Han’s life. Freud did go on to create universal theories of personality development during childhood; however, these were based on limited and unrepresentative case studies that many psychologists would discredit.

Answer 25

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, and the use of statistical (quantitative) techniques to analyse data. The term ‘nomothetic’ comes from the Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’.

Answer 26

experiments, correlations, psychometric testing and other quantitative methods are favoured among nomothetic researchers.

Answer 27

Nomothetic Approach

Answer 28

psychological disorder such as OCD and depression. Pinpoint biological factors such as neurotransmitters for cause of disorders and use biological therapies (drugs) to treat. The biological approach also makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving et al. helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.

Answer 29

establish general laws of learning (classical and operant) that can be generalised to human and non-humans. In order to collect valid and reliable data, behaviourists often use laboratory experiments, where strict control upon extraneous and confounding variables allows for a ‘cause and effect’ relationship between variables to be established.

Answer 30

general laws, such as the Multi-Store Model of Memory, which they believed could be generalised to everyone. The cognitive approach uses objective methods of measuring brain activity, such as EEG and PET scans. This allows cognitive psychologists to draw inferences about the workings of mental processes.

Answer 31

general conclusions about human behaviour e.g that situational factors are responsible for both obedience and conformity

Answer 32

DSM-V takes a nomothetic approach as they classify people with psychological disorders on the basis of specific symptoms

Answer 33

Unlike the idiographic approach, the nomothetic approach is considered as generally scientific. The use of experimental (quantitative) methods, controlled measurement and the ability to predict behaviour, are all seen as strengths of the nomothetic approach. Furthermore, controlled methods allow for replication to examine the reliability of findings which has helped psychology establish itself as a scientific discipline. The development of theories and empirical testing are just one of the key features of science that are employed by the nomothetic approach. Highly scientific methods = The nomothetic approach makes use of research methods which objectively produce reliable data through adopting standardised conditions and a high level of control of extraneous and confounding variables. Constituent parts of the target behaviour can be reliably measured through the use of operationalised behavioural categories, thus increasing the internal validity of the findings. Since the findings will not be influenced by researcher bias, the findings have greater scientific creditability due to their method of collection.

Answer 34

because the nomothetic approach is viewed as scientific, it is useful for predicting and controlling behaviour. For example, Biological Psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research and work by readdressing a biological imbalance. SSRI's are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin, thus reducing the anxiety associated with OCD which helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition, as a result of nomothetic the research.

Answer 35

drug treatments are not successful for all patients, some psychologists argue that alternate treatments (e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) which are based on an idiographic approach are more suitable for treating individuals with such conditions, as they seek to understand and explain the disorder from a patient’s point of view.

Answer 36

some psychologists argue that the nomothetic approach loses sight of the 'whole person’, due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis. Furthermore, these psychologists also claim that the nomothetic approaches only provides a superficial understanding of human behaviour. For example, Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt electric shock because they were ordered to do so. However, the results fail to provide an explanation of why each person obeyed, and there may have been very different circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant. May undervalue the impact of individual experiences = Some have criticised the nomothetic approach as ‘losing the whole person’ in psychology due to such an emphasis on establishing universal norms and unifying laws of behaviour. For example, research into the frequency of depression or bipolar disorder tells us little about the experiences of sufferers and so little about what treatments may be most beneficial. Therefore, the nomothetic approach, from this standpoint, has done little to improve people’s lives in comparison to the idiographic approach.

Answer 37

Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram’s research only allows us to make predictions on groups and not on individuals. While Milgram might predict that 65% of the population would obey an unjust order, he is unable to accurately predict what an individual would do. Allport (who first coined the term idiographic) argued that it is only by understanding an individual that we can make accurate predictions on individual behaviour.

Answer 38

Holt (1967)

Answer 39

Many approaches in psychology take advantage of both approaches and therefore the two approaches can be viewed as complementary rather than contradictory. For example, while Cognitive Psychologists typically take a nomothetic approach and create general laws of cognitive processes (e.g. the Working Memory Model), they also take advantage of the idiographic approach when using case studies to provide evidence for a particular theory (e.g. Patient KF, Shallice and Warrington, 1970). In reality, many approaches make use of both approaches, and it could be argued that the distinction between idiographic and nomothetic is meaningless and that psychologists should employ both methods depending on the nature of the research question.

Answer 40

Historically, Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. - 64% of psychological researchers from US - In some texts, >90% of studies have US PPs - Samples predominantly white middle class

Answer 41

Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people

Answer 42

a variety of factors shape culture and these different factors are reflected in the differences between various cultures.

Answer 43

Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions.

Answer 44

same two as gender bias: Alpha and Beta bais

Answer 45

theory which assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, and that the recognition of these differences must always inform psychological research and understanding

Answer 46

occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same.

Answer 47

by distinguishing ethnocentrism and Cultural relativism

Answer 48

Ethnocentrism means seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective, and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Ethnocentrism is an often inadvertent lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own.

Answer 49

For example, definitions of abnormality vary from culture to culture.

Answer 50

Rack (1984) claims that African-Caribbeans in Britain are sometimes diagnosed as ‘mentally ill’ on the basis of behaviour which is perfectly normal in their subculture, and this is due to the ignorance of African-Caribbean subculture on the part of white psychiatrists.

Answer 51

Ainsworth's Strange Situation is another example of ethnocentric research. The Strange Situation was developed to assess attachment types, and many researchers assume that the Strange Situation has the same meaning for the infants from other cultures, as it does for American children.

Answer 52

an imposed etic,

Answer 53

where a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another.

Answer 54

- An etic approach looks at behaviour from the outside, (Emics are the constructs particular to a specific culture) - Emic approach considers behaviour from the inside. (Etics are constructs that are universal to all people)

Answer 55

Cultural relativism insists that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural context is taken into consideration. Therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere, is suspect.

Answer 56

the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture. For example, Sternberg (1985) pointed out that coordination skills that may be essential to life in a preliterate society (e.g., those motor skills required for shooting a bow and arrow) may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more “developed” society. Cole et al (1971) asked adult members of the Kpelle tribe in Africa to sort familiar objects into groups. In Western societies, people would sort the objects into categories (food, tools etc). The Kpelle tribes people sorted them into functional groups (a knife with an orange because an orange can be cut by a knife). Therefore, what is intelligent behaviour can differ from culture to culture. (when the Kpelle were shown how to sort the items in a “Western” way, they thought it was a stupid way of doing so!).

Answer 57

Types of theoretical constructs

Answer 58

culture bias research has significant world effects such as validating and amplifying damaging stereotypes. The US army used an IQ test before world war I which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority - Unsuprisingly the test showed that african americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale which had a negative effect on the attitudes of americans towards this group of people.

Answer 59

is to recognise when it occurs. Smith and Bond found in their survey of european textbooks on psychology, that 66% of the studies were American, 32% were European, 2% from the rest of the world. shows that psychological research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by simply selecting different cultural groups to study

Answer 60

Greater use should be made of research conducted from within each culture, by members of that culture Cross cultural research should be encouraged Both researchers and participants should be from the culture being studied. This should avoid misleading conclusions being drawn.

Answer 61

Researchers may be unable to relinquish their own cultural world-view, which may always influence their interpretations. And may be difficult to communicate due to language barriers. For example, Participants will be spoken to and given task instructions by a researcher who speaks English. Their responses may be spoken in their own language and these will need to be translated. This may prove difficult and getting across what the participants have to do in the task may be lost in translation. If the community has little contact with the outside world, the task may be very unfamiliar to them. Furthermore, the community might not be familiar with the research tradition and the idea of scientific research. Therefore they may not be as responsive to participation as people in other communities, or confident that their responses will remain confidential. This could affect their answers and behaviour. The validity of the research may be questioned because when studying the behaviour of the community the researcher may impose her own cultural standards. (Ethnocentrism) Perhaps it is never possible to replicate a study exactly in another culture.

Answer 62

Also more well-travelled than previously before, so have an increased understanding of other cultures at both personal and professional level. For example international psychology conferences increase the exchange of ideas, reducing ethnocentrism in psychology and enabled a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism

Answer 63

for example when it comes to diagnosing mental disorders. Early versions of the American DSM system virtually ignored mental disorders that are found mainly or exclusively in non-American cultures. DSM-IV in 1994 acknowledged the inaccuracy and included short appendix on culture bound syndromes found in other parts of the world.

Answer 64

Cohen and Kleinman (1997) dismissed this appendix as ''little more than a sop'' thrown to cultural psychiatrists and psychiatric anthropologists'' and pointed that detailed work in several non-western cultures had uncovered many disorders totally ignored by DSM-IV.

Answer 65

When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture. However, this also means that it needs to include real differences.

Answer 66

developing theories that show the similarities and differences between males and females, without devaluing either gender. This may mean using a variety of research methods and considering women in the natural settings in which they function.

Answer 67

one way to achieve universality would be to employ what Berry (1969) described as a derived etic. This is where a series of emic studies take place in local settings, conducted by local researchers using local techniques.

Answer 68

Such studies can build up a picture of human behaviour in a similar way to the ethnographic approach taken by anthropologists. This is the study of different cultures through the use of comparisons, as by making comparisons between cultures we can learn more about a target culture.

Answer 69

Holism comes from the Greek word ‘holos’, which means ‘all’, ‘whole’ or ‘entire’ and is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as separate parts.

Answer 70

Gestalt psychology

Answer 71

when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.

Answer 72

What we see only makes sense when we consider the image as a whole, rather than the individual elements that make up our vision.

Answer 73

For example, within the area of perception, visual illusions demonstrate that human perceive more than the sum of sensations on the Retina.

Answer 74

argue that human react to stimuli as a whole rather than a set of stimulus-response links

Answer 75

Qualitative methods (to investigate all aspects of the individual as well as the interactions between people.

Answer 76

Holism looks at the behaviour as a whole so provides a more complete understanding of behaviour. thus is beneficial as it takes into account all aspects in order to explain human behaviour. Furthermore, it recognises that the whole is not just the sum of parts but acknowledges how the combination of factors could be enabling certain behaviours.

Answer 77

since the approach briefly looks into the combination of factors we are unable to conclude how each individual factor may have an effect on that particular behaviour. this means that the explanations are unsatisfactory. Furthermore, when using this approach we can not test rigorously thus reliable research can not be generated nor can they be generalised to findings.

Answer 78

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts. And then use the simplest explanations to understand how they work

Answer 79

the idea that complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest terms possible.

Answer 80

Occam's Razor

Answer 81

this theory states that one should not make unnecessary assumptions and that the answer to a problem is often the simplest

Answer 82

Lowest level - Biological explanations - where behaviour is explained in terms of neurchemicals, brain etc. Middle level - Psychological explanations - considers cognitive, behavioural nand environmental approaches Highest level - social and cultural explanations - where behaviour is explained in terms of influence of social groups

Answer 83

Lowest (Bio) - Maguire et al found an association between the size of the hippocampus and memory for spatial navigation middle - Miller examined the capacity of STM and peterson and peterson examined the duration of STM Highest - research suggest that cultural expectations affect what we remember and how we recall information (Bartlett 1932)

Answer 84

bio - terms of hormones psycho - operant, observation, imitation sociocultural - cultural norms and expectations

Answer 85

argues that several levels of explanation are necessary to explain a particular behaviour. interactionism considers how different levels of explanation interact.

Answer 86

Biological, Environmental and Experimental

Answer 87

refers to the way that biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, etc.

Answer 88

suggests main cause are neurotransmitters, genes etc

Answer 89

is also known as stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R (stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains.

Answer 90

classical conditioning of a baby to form attachments/ phobias

Answer 91

where a complex behaviour is reduced to a single (isolated) variable for the purpose of measuring and determining causal relationships

Answer 92

Multi-store model of memory suggests that memory consists of 3 stores and each store has it's own capacity, coding and duration. Cognitive psychologists examine memory in terms of isolated variables

Answer 93

experimental psychology is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be studied effectively through experiments and complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables. this allows researchers to study different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner while establishing a causal relationship. this would not be possible if psychologists attempted to study all factors at once. Too complex to interpret findings + Consistent with the scientific approach -Scientific psychology aims to be able to predict and control behaviour. Therefore, reductionism is consistent with the aims of science because it allows for this. Smaller, constituent parts of behaviour are easily measured and manipulated under strict laboratory conditions, and so ‘cause and effect’ relationships between variables can be reliably established. Hence, reductionism raises the scientific credibility of psychology

Answer 94

+ Practical application in the development of drug therapy — A reductionist approach towards researching and explaining mental disorders has led to the development of powerful and effective drug therapies e.g. SSRIs to treat depression, based on the view that a deficiency in serotonin causes depression (biological reductionism). This also reduces need for institutionalisation, where sufferers can continue with their day to day lives through the use of non-invasive treatment and without regular hospital visits. Therefore, reductionist approaches have had a positive impact on people’s lives.

Answer 95

may oversimplify behaviour and ignore the complexity of human behaviour. for example when treating conditions like OCD, drugs like SSRI's may provide temporary relief but suggests that imbalances are the cause of the condition and may mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for the true cause.

Answer 96

many different theories of cognitive functioning such as perception and language have been researched in much details in psychology but not significant effort has been made to combine theories together. this is an issue because behaviour is usually the result of a combination of multiple things rather than one individual factor. this means that we can not use these theories to generalise our finding to real life.

Answer 97

ethical implications considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants taking part in the research.

Answer 98

the participants were deceived and were unable to give fully informed consent. the experiment also caused significant distress and the participants were almost coerced to continue against their own will

Answer 99

whether ends justify the means

Answer 100

bowlby suggested that mothers form a crucial and special bond within a critical period. he also suggested that if a bond is not formed within this critical period it could have devastating and long lasting effects on the child - internal working model = how the child forms relationships in the future. While bowlby's theory had improved the care of children. it has also encouraged the view that a womens place is at home with her children, which could make some mothers feel guilty for wanting to return to work

Answer 101

Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term social sensitivity to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research

Answer 102

1. the research question - researcher needs to ask questions carefully because they could have negative effects on members of a particular group 2. the methodology used - researcher should beconsider the treatment of participants and rights (confidentiality, anonymity) 3. the institutional context - researcher should be mindful on how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. 4. interpretation and application of findings - researcher needs to consider how the findings may be interpretated and applied in the real world.

Answer 103

he used studies of identical twins to support his view that intelligence is largely genetic. his views greatly influenced the Hadow Report (1926) which led to the creation of the 11+ exam for entry into selective 'grammar school'. this was used throughout England and is till used today in a few areas. this meant that generations were affected by this research eventhough it was later found out that falsified his research data

Answer 104

- deception - privacy - informed consent -confidentiality of data - sound and valid methodology - Justice and Equitable treatment - scientific freedom - should not censor scientific data - ownership of data - values of social scientists - different values can cause people to carry out research differently as well as interpret - risk/benefit ratio - risks and benefits may be harder to access in socially sensitive research so important that they are considered carefully

Answer 105

Sieber and Stanley came up with ways psychology could deal with issues within socially sensitive research, which provide a mechanism to safeguard individuals taking part in research.

Answer 106

socially sensitive research can lead to discrimination so some psychologists argue against this form of research. for example research surrounding 'racial differences and IQ has been used to justify new forms of social control. this gives a sort of justification for this type of behaviour because of researchers findings that could be possibly flawed.

Answer 107

issues like highlighted above suggest that they could end up having negative effects and these may rub off on participants

Answer 108

socially sensitve resaerch is desirable and benefiting to society. for example research examining eye-witness testimony, especially the use of child-witnesses has found that young children can be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner. in this area socially sensitve research has provided a good working relationship between psychologists and legal professionals improve accuracy and validity of cild eye-witnesses

Answer 109

psychologits should be able to carry research what seems important to them, because if the governmnet starts passing laws to prohibit certain kinds of research then there is a real danger that reseaerch will be stopped for political reasons rather than ethical. in addition it is found out that socially sensitve research is more likel to be rejected by institutional ethical commitees. Ceci et al found out rejection rate was twice as great, which suggests that there is a mindfulness surrounding socially sensitive research and appropraite measures are put in place to protect individuals and the wider community

Answer 110

Nature is the view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors. For a long time, psychologists have known that certain physical characteristics, such as eye colour and skin pigmentation, and certain diseases (e.g. Huntingdon’s) are biologically determined and the result of heredity (or genetic inheritance).

Answer 111

process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

Answer 112

the basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species are a product of evolution and that individual differences are the result of each person’s unique genetic code. e.g characteristics like height, weight, hair loss, life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses are positively correlated with genetic relatedness.

Answer 113

family, twin and adoption studies show that the closer the relatedness of two people, the more likely it is that they will show the same behaviours. For example, the risk of being diagnosed with schizophrenia is approximately 1% of the general population. However, Gottesman and Shields (1991) pooled the results of around 40 family studies and found that the risk increases to 46% for those with two parents who have schizophrenia. highlighting a significant genetic component.

Answer 114

Predisposition/genetic vulnerability (diathesis) Environmental/psychological events (stressor) Expression of mental illness

Answer 115

Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded by nativists as the product of maturation, as we have a ‘biological clock’ which switches certain behaviours ‘on’ or ‘off’ in a pre-programmed way. Huntingdon’s disease is a genetically transmitted disorder that usually emerges between the ages of 30 and 50, although it can appear at any time, since the genetic cause is innately present.

Answer 116

Evolutionary explanations also emphasise the importance of nature, as they assume that behaviours or characteristics that increase our chances of survival and reproduction will be naturally selected; the genes for these characteristics or behaviours will be passed on, as they provide an adaptive advantage. For example, Bowlby proposed that children come into the world biologically programmed to form attachments because this will help them to survive. This suggests attachment behaviours are naturally selected, and passed on as a result of generic inheritance (heredity mechanisms).

Answer 117

Nurture is the view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences.

Answer 118

The environment is seen as everything outside the body which can include people, events and the physical world.

Answer 119

- the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually ‘filled’ as a result of experience. (This view was first proposed by John Locke in the 17th Century and was later taken up by behavioural psychologists.) - also that everything is learned (attachment is learned by classical conditioning, Bandura suggested that agression is learned by observation and imitation)

Answer 120

Batson et al. (1956) proposed the double bind theory, which suggests that schizophrenia is the result of disordered communication within the family. This is where one instruction is given overtly to a child (e.g. a mother says ‘come to me’) while another instruction is given covertly (e.g. the mother’s manner and tone of voice are rejecting). Prolonged exposure to such interactions prevents the development of a coherent construction of reality, and in the long run this manifests itself as schizophrenic symptoms.

Answer 121

The interactionist approach is the view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour.

Answer 122

Evaluation – The Interactionist Approach  Recently psychologists have begun to question whether human behaviour is due to heredity factors (nature) or the environment (nurture). It is now widely accepted that heredity and the environment do not act independently and both nature and nurture are essential for almost all behaviour. Therefore, instead of defending extreme nativist or environmentalist views, most researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. The interactionist approach is the view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour.

Answer 123

The interactionist approach is best illustrated by the genetic disorder PKU (phenylketonuria). PKU is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes, one from each parent. People with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation. However, if the child is diagnosed early, they are placed on a low protein diet for the first 12 years, which helps to avert this potentially lifelong disorder. Therefore, the disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed, because of an altered environment (low protein diet – nurture).

Answer 124

many psychologists argue that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a psychological disorder to develop; this is set out in the diathesis-stress model. The diathesis is the biological vulnerability such as being born with a gene that predisposes you to develop a disorder. However, the disorder will only develop if there is an environmental ‘stressor’ to trigger it.

Answer 125

+ Diathesis-Stress Model — A diathesis is a biological vulnerability. However not everyone with these ‘candidate’ genes will develop a disorder. The expression of the gene depends on experience in the form of a stressor which triggers the condition (a diathesis). This has been illustrated by Tienari et al (20040 who studied 145 Finnish adoptees whose mothers had schizophrenia and were then matched with a sample of 158 adoptees without this genetic risk. The two groups were independently assessed after 12 years and of the total 303, 14 developed schizophrenia and 11 of these were from the high risk group. Children without a genetic risk but raised in a family climate characterised by tension and a lack of empathy did not develop SZ. However, children with a genetic risk and who experienced the same family climate did go on to develop SZ. This research provides strong evidence that schizophrenia is best explained by looking at an interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental triggers, in this case, family environment.

Answer 126

The brain can reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Neuroplasticity is a term which describes the changes in the structure of the brain (nature), as a result of life experience (nurture). For example, Maguire et al. (2000) investigated the hippocampi volume of London taxi drivers’ brains. She found that the hippocampus on each side of the brain (and especially the right hippocampus) was larger in taxi drivers in comparison to non taxi drivers. Consequently, Maguire concluded that driving a taxi (nurture) actually had an effect on the size of the hippocampi (nature).

Answer 127

1. In passive gene-environment interaction, parents pass on genes and also provide an environment, both of which influence the child’s development. For example, highly intelligent parents are likely to pass on genes for intelligence to their children. They are also more likely to provide high levels of cognitive stimulation and a good education. These correlated genetic and environmental influences both increase the likelihood that their child will be highly intelligent. 2. In evocative gene-environment interaction, heritable traits influence the reaction of others and hence the environment provided by others. For example, a shy child (partly genetically influenced) may be less fun to other children, making other children less likely to want to spend time with him or her. This environment may result in the child becoming even more socially withdrawn. 3. In active gene-environment interaction, a child’s heritable traits influence his or her choice of environment. For example, an aggressive child may choose to watch violent films and engage in contact sports. This is known as ‘niche- picking’ and is one reason research has shown that the influence of genes increases as children get older.

Answer 128

research suggest that OCD is a highly heritable disorder.for example Nestadt (2010) put the heritability rate at 0.76 such understanding can inform genetic councelling because it is important to understand the high heritability does not mean that it is inevitable that the person will go on to develop the disorder. Those who have a high genetic risk of OCD because of their family background can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they can prevent it. this shows that the debate is not just a theoretical one but a practical one and important one that allows us to understand the interaction between nature and nurture.

Answer 129

both nature and nurture perspectives are deterministic, so behaviour is the rseult of biological influences and environmental nfluences. However ignores the idea of free will and suggests that all behaviour is governed by factors outside of our control.

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