Research Methods Flashcards

Question

How do we deal with deception?

Answer 1

- debrief participants - tell them the true aims of the study and any other details they were not given, - what their data will be used for and - the right to withdraw - for severe cases give the option of counselling

Answer 2

participants should not be placed at many more risks that everyday life, should be protected from physical and psychological harm

Answer 3

- debrief participants and reassure them of the real aims - remind participants of their right to withdraw - terminate the experiment if level of harm is higher than expected - offer counselling for severe cases

Answer 4

right of privacy: participants have the right to control information about themselves and what the researcher can find out about them Right of confidentiality: participants have the right to ensure that any information about themselves is protected

Answer 5

- if personal details used need to be protected e.g fake name/ initials and should not be identifiable by any person, institution or organisation - better not to ask personal details - refer to participants as number - debrief to sat how their data will be protected and not shared

Answer 6

- extraneous variables - confounding variables - demand characteristics - investigator effect

Answer 7

any variable other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable (therefore the results) if it is not controlled - e.g temp of room

Answer 8

do not change at the same time as the IV and they could offer an alternative explanation for results so we have to try identify them

Answer 9

Situational – any features of the experimental environment that may effect participants behaviour ( and therefore the DV) Participant – any individual differences between participants that may effect the dv i.e the way in which each participant differs from each other

Answer 10

Participants are randomly allocated to a group. - decreases the possibility of participant variables in the form of individual differences

Answer 11

to combat the problem of order effects with a repeated measures deign , researchers counterbalance the order of the conditions. The sample is split into two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Any order effects should be balanced out by the opposing half of the participants.

Answer 12

any variable other than the iv that may have affected the dv which does change at the same time as the iv.

Answer 13

the true source which changes the DV

Answer 14

personality- some people could have been more outgoing whereas some people could have been more shy

Answer 15

any cue from the research situation which may reveal the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour in the study which may change the results of the investigation. (they act as confounding variables)

Answer 16

please-U: participants may act in a way they think is expected and over perform Screw u effect – participants may underperform to sabotage the results of the study – this means that participants are not behaving naturally so effecting the DV

Answer 17

By not allowing participants to guess the true aim of the study, e.g single blind techniques - only the researcher knows the true aims of the research

Answer 18

any effect of the investigators behaviour (consciously or unconsciously) on the research outcome (dv). They reveal to the participants how they should behave or what the experiment is about.

Answer 19

Double blind technique - where both the participant and the researcher does not know the true aim of the experiment. Only the person who designed the experiment.

Answer 20

leading questions - researchers may encourage participants to be more chattier from energy-drink participants

Answer 21

1. randomisation 2. standardisation

Answer 22

the use of chance in order to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions. the use of ‘chance’ in setting up the investigation - MSA

Answer 23

using exactly the same procedures and instructions for all participants in the research study each time the experiment is conducted MSA - ways in which procedures/materials/instructions within an investigation are kept the same for all participants.

Answer 24

Involves the manipulation of the iv to measure the effect of the dv

Answer 25

any thing which can be changed or altered in an investigation

Answer 26

researchers purposely alter the IV

Answer 27

aspect that is manipulated by the researcher/ changes naturally so that the effect on DV can be measured

Answer 28

the variable that is measured by the researcher, any effect on the DV should be caused by the IV

Answer 29

Then the study is non-experimental

Answer 30

a general statement of what the researcher tends to investigate

Answer 31

we write as if we are trying to reword a question to no question. e.g does hunger effect memory for food related words?’ then the researcher created the aim to examine the effect of hunger on memory of food-related words?

Answer 32

Hypothesis - A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated. It is written at the beginning of the study.

Answer 33

direction, non-directional and null

Answer 34

Directional and Non-directional

Answer 35

The researcher makes clear the difference or relationship they expect to find between the conditions or groups of people. They state the direction of the results. They are used when previous research has been conducted into the topic and suggest particular results. In a directional hypothesis, words like more/less, higher/lower, faster/slower will be used

Answer 36

One-tailed

Answer 37

The researcher states that there will be a difference but does not state the nature of the difference. They are used when there is no previous research or when previous findings are contradictory.

Answer 38

Two tailed hypothesis

Answer 39

States that there is no relationship between the variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other)

Answer 40

the process of clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured. The term operationalisation can be applied to IV's, DV's or co-variables.

Answer 41

- to examine the effect of hunger on food related words - the iv is hunger levels - the dv is number of food related words correctly recalled

Answer 42

pilot studies are small scale prototypes of a study that are carried out in advance of the full research to find out if there are any problems with experiments. the sample used must be representative of the target population

Answer 43

- experimental design - so participants have enough time to complete the tasks - instructions for participants - are the instructions clear? - Measuring instruments - including the behavioural categories in the observation research and questions when using questionnaires . They allow questions and categories to be checked and modified when necessary

Answer 44

time, effort and money is not wasted on a flawed methodology

Answer 45

Must have a sample that is representative of the target population.

Answer 46

Repeated measures Independent groups Matched pairs

Answer 47

- participants take part in each condition of the experiment. - The data from both conditions is then compared for each participant to see if there was a difference

Answer 48

- Fewer participants requires as participants take part in both conditions of the experiment - This makes it less costly and time consuming, as less recruitment of participants. - In addition, use of same participants across both conditions Reduces participant variables such as individual differences - meaning the effect of the IV can be measured on the DV precisely

Answer 49

- Order effects can occur – so participants may perform better in the second condition as they experien, thce practice effects and know what may be expected of them to do - Participants who may experience fatigue or boredom may do worse in the second condition as they want to give up - therefore this design isprone to demand characteristics as participants are more likely to guess the aim of the experiment when they take part in both conditions

Answer 50

The researcher could use counterbalancing - to address any order effects, as participants take part in condition B followed by Condition A, whilst the other half Completes Condition B followed by Condition A. - Any order effects experienced by those who those who started in condition A should be offset by those who started in condition B

Answer 51

two separate groups of participant. One group in each condition of the experiment. Allocated into groups by random allocation.

Answer 52

Avoids order effects – as participants only take place in only one condition of the experiment they are less likely to become bored and give up reducing the impact of order effects reduces demand characteristics as participants are only taking part in one condition of the experiment, less likely to guess aim of the experiment, increasing validity of the results uses random allocation - ensures participant has equal chance of being selected. reducing investigator effects, biased sample

Answer 53

- more participants are required so more expensive and more time consuming - participant variables may affect the results. - For example differences in age sex background etc so may act as extraneous variables - This means that uncertain that the IV caused the changes measured.

Answer 54

pairs of participants are matched from the sample in terms of key variables such as age then participants are treated much like those in independent measures. One member of the pair is placed in the experimental group and the other member in the control group

Answer 55

- Reduces participant variables - as researcher pairs up so they have similar abilities and characteristics. This means that accurate conclusions can be made and demand characteristics could potentially be identified. - In addition, Avoids order effects - such as practice effects and fatigue, as participants only take part in one condition of the experiment

Answer 56

More participants required so more expensive and time consuming Difficult to find a close exact match Individual differences may still play a role, as finding a close match may be almost impossible

Answer 57

any method in which a person is asked to state their feelings, opinions, thoughts and or experiences related to a given topic

Answer 58

Questionnaires involve a pre-set list of written questions to which a participant responds. Used to asses thoughts feelings and the dv. There are two types: open and closed

Answer 59

Open – allows participants to respond however they wish not set/predetermined response/answer . Generates qualitative data

Answer 60

Closed – set of predetermined responses and aswers . Generateds quantattive data

Answer 61

Cost effective and less time-consuming – gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed to a large number of people Less effort – reseacher does not need to be present Easy to analyse data is quantitative if closed questions are used using graphs and charts

Answer 62

Social desirability bias (form of demand characteristics) - Responses given may not be truthful respondents may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and may influence their answers Response bias – respondents tend to reply in a similar way for example always ticking yes because respondents complete the questionnaire quickly and failed to read questions properly Acquiescence bias – tendency to agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question

Answer 63

measures authoritarianism. Jackson and messick created a reversed version of the f-scale where all the items were in the opposite meaning to the original questionnaire. He gave both questionnaires and seen a strong positive correlation between both sets of results . This suggests that aquiescence bias was taking place

Answer 64

structured, semi-structured and unstructured

Answer 65

made up of predetermined questions that are asked in a fixed order. Like a questionnare but face-face

Answer 66

Adv: They are straight forward to replicate due to standardised forma. The format also Reduces differences between interviewers Disadv: Not possible to deviate from the nature of the topic or explain the questions when the participant is confused. This will limit the validity of the data collected

Answer 67

a list of questions worked out in advance but interviewers are free to ask follow up questions based on previous answers

Answer 68

resembles a conversation. Not set questions. The general aim that a certain topic is discussed. And the interaction is free flowing. Encouraged to expand and elaborate on answers

Answer 69

strength: Interviewer can follow up points and able gain a better insight into the view of the interviewee Weakness: Analysis of data is not straightforward. May have to sift through irrelevant information drawing firm conclusions may be difficult Increased risk of interviewer bias as the researcher can ask and adapt questions

Answer 70

Likert scales – a scale of agreement usually from strongly agree to strongly disagree Rating scales - usually using numbers to rate how they feel about a particular topic Fixed choice – presented with a list of choices from which they can either choose from e.g yes or no questions

Answer 71

- quiet space with privacy - start off interview with more neutral questions - e.g did you get here okay? - interview schedule - standardised to reduce interviewer bias - record interview and make notes throughout

Answer 72

overuse of jargon - using technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field - make is simple and easy emotive language and leading questions - sometimes the researchers attitudes towards a particular topic is clear from the way in which the question id phrased. e.g boxing is a barbaric sport, how far do you agree Double-barrelled questions and double-negatives - questions which contain 2 questions in one, the issue being that respondents may agree with one half of the question and not the other. double negatives - two negative words in one sentance. e.g i am not unhappy in my job

Answer 73

attempt to find a cause and effect relationship between independent variables and dependent variables and to measure the extent of this effect

Answer 74

An experiment which takes place in a highly-controlled environment. the researcher manipulated the IV and measure the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control over extraneous variables. Does not always have to be in a lab could be in a classroom where conditions are well controlled

Answer 75

- highly controlled conditions - strict control over extraneous variables so prevent them from becoming confounding variables which negatively affect the DV - high internal validity - easily replicated

Answer 76

- low mundane realism, tasks given may not represent everyday activities and therefore also lack ecological validity - demand characteristics, participants are aware they are taking part in a study so behave in an unnatural manner - lacks generalisability to real life because of the lab setting

Answer 77

The IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting. The researcher goes to the participants’ usual environment rather than the participants going to the researchers’ lab. The researcher still records the effect on the DV. Participants are sometimes unaware that they are being studied.

Answer 78

- higher mundane realism than lab experiments . as a result field experiments might produce behaviour that is more natural. - can generalise to everyday life - high ecological validity

Answer 79

There is a lack of control over confounding variables and extraneous variables. This means that they can become confounding variables and distort the meanings of the findings. -Cause and effect relationship can not be made since other factors could have had an impact - ethical issues - participants are unaware of the investigation, cannot give consent

Answer 80

They are like a lab and field experiment. The researcher does not Manipulate the Iv and instead records the effect of an existing IV on the DV. The difference is that the IV is naturally occurring (the researcher has no control over it) e.g. before and after a natural disaster. The researcher records an effect on the DV they have decided on or which occurs naturally, such as exam results. The IV is ‘natural’ but not necessarily the environment meaning participants can still be tested in a lab.

Answer 81

- high external validity, IV is naturally occurring - high ecological validity - real life issues that are being studied rather than being manipulated artificially and the effect of these real life issues on real world. - unique insights gained on real-life situations

Answer 82

- only occur very rarely - so limits the opportunity to generalise the results to other similar events or circumstances - no control over extraneous variables, which means it's difficult for the research to accurately assess the effects of IV on the DV

Answer 83

Have an IV that is based on the differences between people e.g age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists and the IV cannot be changed. For example, if the anxiety levels of phobic and non-phobic patients were compared, the IV of ‘having a phobia’ would not have come about through any experimental manipulation. The DV may be naturally occurring or decided by the researcher.

Answer 84

- Often conducted under controlled conditions and therefore share strengths with lab experiments such as - they can be used when there are practical or ethical reasons why participants can't be randomised.

Answer 85

- participants can not be randomly allocated to research conditions to remove the issue of bias

Answer 86

the measure of averages in the data set

Answer 87

the use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

Answer 88

average calculated by adding up the values and dividing them by the number of values

Answer 89

the middle value in the data set when arranged from highest to lowest

Answer 90

the most frequently occurring value in the dataset

Answer 91

Adv: It is the most sensitive of the measures and takes into consideration all values in the data set. Disadv: However, it can be misrepresentative of the data set if extreme scores or anomalies are present.

Answer 92

Often used when there are extreme values that make it difficult to get a true representation of the data through using the mean.

Answer 93

Adv: The median is not affected by extreme scores and is easier to calculate Disadv: However, it does not reflect all scores in the dataset

Answer 94

two modes within the dataset

Answer 95

Adv: The mode is not affected by extreme scores Disadv: It is sometimes very different from the other scores and does not represent the dataset very well.

Answer 96

bell shape curve

Answer 97

mode - highest and middle of skew median - below highest (mode) mean - below the median

Answer 98

in the middle of the curve/ the same midpoint

Answer 99

if the exam taken was too easy

Answer 100

the mean because it's affected by extreme scores

Answer 101

These are descriptive statistics that define the spread of data around the central value (mean or median).

Answer 102

range and standard deviation

Answer 103

Calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in the dataset and usually adding 1. The addition of 1 is a mathematical correction to show some scores will have been rounded up/down.

Answer 104

Adv: Easy to calculate mathematically without using a calculator Disadv: Doesn’t indicate the distribution pattern between the whole dataset

Answer 105

Tells you how much (on average) each score deviates (moves away) from the mean. The larger the SD, the greater the spread within a dataset.

Answer 106

Adv: The SD is a more precise measurement of the spread of scores because it includes all values. Disadv: However, it can be distorted by a single extreme value. Also, some extreme values might not be revealed unlike with the range

Answer 107

An observational study is when researchers watch and record people's behaviour.

Answer 108

See what people do without asking them Study behaviour within a natural or controlled setting Study more complex interactions or topics Capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour

Answer 109

Psychologists observe people/animals in their natural environment. The environment is not controlled. This means that the participants involved can behave freely. The researcher does not interfere they simply watch the behaviour of the group.

Answer 110

strengths: High external/ecological validity because they are conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur which means that the findings can be generalised to everyday life. weaknesses: The lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult and therefore the reliability is reduced. Researchers have very little control over extraneous and confounding variables.

Answer 111

Watching and recording behaviour in a controlled and structured environment such as a laboratory.Researchers have more control over variables such as the time the observation takes place, how the environment is set up and who is involved.

Answer 112

Adv: Low external/ecological validity and therefore findings cannot be applied to everyday life. Disadv: Extraneous and confounding variables are less of a problem which makes replication easier.

Answer 113

The researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing. They join in with the group behaviours.

Answer 114

adv: Provides the researcher with increased insight into the people being studied -increase external validity. Disadv: Researcher may ‘go native’ and lose objectivity.

Answer 115

The researcher does not become a member of the group, they remain separate from the group that they are watching.

Answer 116

Adv: Researcher can remain objective so there is less danger of ‘going native’. Disadv: Lose valuable insight of the group because they are too removed.

Answer 117

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without them knowing or consenting to being studied. The behaviour must occur in public.

Answer 118

Adv: Removes the problem of demand characteristics which ensures that the behaviour observed remains natural, increasing the internal validity. Diadv: Ethical issues?

Answer 119

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with them knowing and consenting to being studied. Participants can see the researcher.

Answer 120

Adv: More ethically acceptable Disadv: Presence of the researcher may reduce the naturalness of the participant behaviour.

Answer 121

unstructured ansd structured

Answer 122

Researcher wants to write down everything that they see and will therefore produce accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail.

Answer 123

Pros: Detailed information gained Cons: Observer bias due to lack of behaviour categories. Researchers may only record behaviour that ‘catch their eye’ Produce qualitative data – difficult to record and analyse

Answer 124

in structured observations, the researcher uses coded schedules according to a previously agreed formula to document behaviour and organise data into behavioural categories. A behavioural category is when psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target behaviour e.g aggression into components that can be observed and measured

Answer 125

Pros: Operationalised Behaviour categories – easier to record data - systematic - if there is more than one observer, the standardised behaviour schedule results in greater inter-observer reliability -Quantitative data is produced – easier to analyse and compare behaviour Cons: issues with internal validity - researcher may miss crucial behaviours - so may not provide full picture of behaviour - so what was intended to measure not actually measured

Answer 126

time and event sampling

Answer 127

Counting the number of times a particular behaviour (the event) occurs within the group. e.g number of passes between goal keeper and defenders in a football match – the researcher would add up how many passes were made between players.

Answer 128

strength: Useful for when the target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used. Cons: If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details.

Answer 129

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame. e.g in the football match the researcher is only concerned with the goal keeper so they will record what they do every 1 minute.

Answer 130

Pros: Reduces the number of observations that have to be made. Cons: The instances where behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.

Answer 131

the relationship/association between 2 or more co-variables

Answer 132

the research manipulates the Iv to see the change on the DV in an experiment whereas in a correlation there is no manipulation. the researcher just identifies if there is a correlation/assciation

Answer 133

there may be a correlation between 2 variables but does not mean one caused the other. merely just an association

Answer 134

Correlational studies are an ideal place to begin preliminary research investigations. Since they measure the strength of a relationship between tow or more variables, they can provide valuable insight for the future research. They are quick and economical to carry out. No need for a controlled environment because you are not controlling variables. Secondary data (e.g. government statistics) can be used, which means it is less time consuming than an experiment and removes the issue of informed consent as information is already in the public domain.

Answer 135

They can only tell us how 2 variables are related but not why. Cannot establish cause and effect. This means that the researcher can not conclude that one variable caused the other, As there could be a third variable. Caffeine may not cause the anxiety, anxious people may drink more caffeine as a result of being anxious. The third variable problem – there may be a third intervening variable related to both variables being measured which is causing the relationship. Because of these issues, correlations can be misused or misinterpreted. The media in particular may present a correlation as cause and effect, e.g. that people from broken homes are more likely to become criminals, suggesting that criminality is caused by a broken home. Moreover, Correlations only identify a linear relationship and not curvilinear. E.g Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 136

performance is at it's best when there is a moderate (optimal) level of arousal and will deteriate if arousal is too high or too low

Answer 137

is numerical data that can be statistically analysed and converted easily into graphical format

Answer 138

strength: easy to analyse large amounts of data, thus easy to conduct statistical tests which allow for comparisons and trends to be identified weakness: not very representative, gain little insight, since data is generated from closed questions, responses are narrow when it comes to explaining human behaviour. Therefore lacks validity

Answer 139

non-numerical data, language-based data expressed in words which is collected through unstructuted interviews

Answer 140

Adv: rich in detail, Participants are free the answer how they wish gives broad insight - more representative - external validity increases Disadv: can be subjective due to researchers analysing the rich and lengthy detail of participants answers, which relies on their thoughts and opinions. It is also harder to analyse

Answer 141

data that has been collected First-hand, for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher. (sometimes referred to as filed research)

Answer 142

Adv: authenti city - collected for the sole purpose of being investigated to suit aims of research - which enables the researcher to exert a high level of control. Disadv: time consuming and takes a lot of effort. which means that it will be more expensive

Answer 143

information collected by other researchers (second-hand/ data that already exists) for a purpose other than the investigation (sometimes referred to as desk research because the significance is already known)

Answer 144

strength: less time consuming and less expensive to collect. requires little effort which makes collection easier than Primary. weakness: may not be accurate - not reliable done by another person

Answer 145

- easily compare important values without needing to interpret data - summarises key data

Answer 146

a graph that shows the relationship between 2 sets of data by plotting pints to represent each pair of scores.

Answer 147

used to show frequency data for discrete variables

Answer 148

histogram present frequency data for continuous variables

Answer 149

Peer review is an assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure any research intended for publication is of high quality.

Answer 150

This involves all aspects of the work to be scrutinised by a small group of subject-specific experts. These experts conduct an objective review and are unknown to the researcher or author of the work.

Answer 151

- provide recommendation about whether or not should be published in public domain or need revision - check validity of the research and ensure it is of high quality - assess it's appropriateness of the procedure and methodology - judge the significance of the research to wider context of human behaviour - to asses work for it's originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed - to inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes

Answer 152

The benefits of peer review are clear, it establishes validity and accuracy of research. It also means certain areas of research are open to constructive criticism. The process helps to prevent any substandard research being released which protects the reputation of the discipline. There is less opportunity for plagiarised work or duplications, meaning journal articles will become known as trusted publications.

Answer 153

since peer reviews are often anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact as a means to criticise their rivals. This is ually due to the fact that there a limited funding for new research so element of competion could could bread jealously amongst researchers. As a result, inacurate or unfair critisicms may be recived following the peer review process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research Another issue with Peer review is that it is difficult to find a suitable peer. This is especially true when conductin gpsychological research on new or ground-breaking topic. A possible consequence of this is that research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for publiccation as the researcher did not fully comprehend thhe aims or content. Conversely, results may be published which preserves the status by supporting existing theories more readily than more unconventional research, Resulting in positive publication bias

Answer 154

Implications means how does what we learn from the findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or add value to our economy.

Answer 155

Recent research shows importance of father BOTH parents equally capable of providing emotional support Development of flexible working arrangements Share childcare Maximise their income – contributing to the economy

Answer 156

Absence from work costs the economy £15 billion per year Third of absences from work due to mental illness Research helps to maintain a healthy workforce Quicker diagnosis means quicker treatment More treatments available – drugs, CBT Sufferers can return to work which benefits the economy

Answer 157

refers to a process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies on a specific phenomenon to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns arising across research.

Answer 158

strength: since many studies are combined, the conclusions drawn will be based on a bigger sample which provides greater confidence for generalisation and increases validity of results weaknesses: issues of bias. since the researcher is using secondary data, they may pick and choose what to include in their finding. therefore there is a possibility of bias as they do not accurately represent all of the relevant data on the topic

Research Methods Flashcards

(203 cards)