approaches

Question 1

what is introspection

Answer 1

looking inward, involves the systematic analysis of your own conscious experience of a stimulus.
reporting on your own mental processes as they occur, including memory, perception and emotion.

Question 2

what is wundts method of introspection

Answer 2

1) focus on a stimulus e.g. an object, visual image or auditory tone
2) asked to reflect on different mental processes they experience as they focused on stimulus
3) asked to provide a systematic description of the inner processes they were experiencing
4) it is then possible to compare different ppts reports in response to the same stimuli and propose general theories about mental processes

Question 3

what is the order of the different approaches emerging

Answer 3

Wundts emperical approach, Watson and skinners behavioural approach, cognitive approach, biological approach

Question 4

evaluation of wundts introspection

Answer 4

+ highly influential in psychology’s emergence as a science, inspired others to conduct scientific research and further develop the field
- other scientists critised wundts focus on private mental processes and argued true science should focus on behaviours observable to all
- introspection is not reliably reproduced

Question 5

what is the pyschodynamic approach

Answer 5

argues all human behaviour can be explained in terms of the unconscious mind.
the unconscious mind is the driving force of all behaviour and personality

Question 6

what is the structure of the personality

Answer 6

The id = instinctive part of the personality that we are born with, operates on the pleasure principle, selfish and demands instant gratification for desires
The ego = works on the reality principle, mediator between the other two types, develops at age 2, deploys defence mechanisms
The superego = operates on the morality principle, develops age 5, punishes the ego for wrong doing through guilt

Question 7

what are the defence mechanisms deployed by the ego

Answer 7

protect our conscious mind from painful memories and emotions
- repression = pushiing painful memories into the unconscious so its kept from conscious awarness
- denial = refusing to acknowledge some painful aspects of reality
- displacement= transferring feelings from the true source of distress onto a substitute target

Question 8

what are the psychosexual stages

Answer 8

freud claimed child development occured in 5 stages but that any unresolved conflicts at each stage will result in the child becoming fixated and carrying through certain behaviours into adult life
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Question 9

describe the oral stage of the psychosexual stages

Answer 9

0-2 years
focuses on pleasure in the mouth particularly during breastfeeding
oral fixation may lead to smoking, nail biting or being sarcastic as an adult

Question 10

describe the anal stage of the psychosexual stages

Answer 10

2-3 years
focuses on pleasure of the anus, from withholding or expelling faeces
fixation here may lead to becoming anally retentive ( obsessive perfectionism ) or anally expulsive ( thoughtless and messy )

Question 11

describe the phallic stage of the psychosexual stages

Answer 11

3-6 years
focus is on the genitals and the child experiences oedipus or electra complex
fixation may lead to narcism, recklessness and homosexuality

Question 12

describe the latency stage of the pyschosexual stages

Answer 12

6-12 years
conflicts are repressed

Question 13

describe the genital phase of the psychosexual stages

Answer 13

12+ years
sexual desires become conscious during puberty
fixation may lead to difficulty forming hetrosexual relationships

Question 14

positive evaluation of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 14

+ practical applications. psychoanalysis aims to access the unconscious mind, successful therapy for a range of different problems, from phobias to paralysis. useful in developing treatments.
+ less reductionist than other approaches. freud argues other factors play a role too. psychosexual development is an interaction between nature and nurture ( instinctive drives and upbringing ). more holistic view of human behaviour.

Question 15

negative evaluation of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 15

• unscientific. unconscious mind cant be seen or tested ( unfalsifiable ). the id drives our unconscious behaviour but cant be seen to test this. no empirical evidence.
• largely based on case studies. little Hans, who had a phobia of horses, Freud said it was a fear of his father he had displaced onto horses. This is an issue as it is difficult to generalise to a general population.
• determinist. says behaviour is out of our control - pyscho determinism, but this has been criticised for over emphasising the role of the unconscious. many argue we have more conscious control than freud suggests. fails to acknowledge free will, people have free choice over how to behave.

Question 16

what are the two learning approaches

Answer 16

1) behaviourist approach
2) social learning theory

Question 17

what is the behaviourist approach

Answer 17

argues all human behaviour can be explained in terms of learning through the environment
focuses on studying behaviour that can be observed and measured in controlled laboratory conditions
1) stimulus response learning
2) classical conditioning
3) operant conditioning

Question 18

describe classical conditioning as a form of stimulus response learning in the behaviourist approach

Answer 18

Pavlovs research into saliva produced by dogs
learning by association
food = unconditioned stimulus produces salivation = unconditioned response
sound of a bell = neutral stimulus
overtime the dog learned tp associate the bell with food
bell= conditioned stimulus
saliva = conditioned response

Question 19

describe operant conditioning as a form of stimulus response learning in the behaviourist approach

Answer 19

skinners rats
learning by reinforcement
positive reinforcement = addition of something positive e.g. every time the rat pressed a lever it received food
negative reinforcement = removal of something negative e.g. rats conditioned to perform same behaviour to avoid an electric shock
both reinforcement increase likelihood of repeating behaviour
punishment = positive - addition of something negative, negative - removal of something posititve

Question 20

positive evaluation of the behaviourist approach

Answer 20

+ scientific. observable and measurable which can be tested in controlled conditions. emperical evidence.
+ practical applications. systematic desensitisation has been shown to be extremely successful in treating phobias. 75% of phobic patients showed improvement after treatment.

Question 21

negative evaluation of the behaviourist approach

Answer 21

• based on animal studies. may not reflect human behaviour. humans might react differently in response to external stimuli. approach may be limited in its ability to explain human behaviour.
• reductionist. reduces human behaviour down to specific variables such as environmental factors, ignores the role biological factors play. twin studies show genes could play a role in human behaviour. oversimplifies complex behaviours.
• determinist. suggests our behaviours are caused by factors outside of our control - environmental determinism. struggles to explain why different people react differently to stimuli. two people could experience the same event and only one would develop a phobia. ignores free will.

Question 22

what is the humanistic approach

Answer 22

all human behaviour can be explained in terms of free will
we are active agents who have the ability to consciously control how to behave and determine our own development
Carl Rogers and Maslow reject general scientific models of human behaviour arguing we are all unique and psychology should take a person centred approach

Question 23

what is self actualisation and Maslows hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach

Answer 23

we all have the drive to realise our true potential and self actualise
Maslows hierarchy of needs is a 5 levelled sequence with basic physiological needs such as hunger and then safety needs must be satisfied before we can achieve love and belonging followed by esteem and then self actualisation
the more basic the need the more powerfully it is felt

Question 24

what is the self, congruence and conditions of worth as described in the humanistic approach

Answer 24

Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self ( the way they perceive themselves ) must be in congruence with the ideal self ( the person they want to be )
if the gap is too big the person will experience incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings.
when we have low self esteem, this can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents. if a parent sets conditions of worth ( i will only love you if .. ) this stores up problems for the person in the future.

Question 25

what is the influence on counselling psychology in regards to the humanistic approach

Answer 25

Rogers believed with non direct counselling people are able to solve their own problems in constructive ways and move towards becoming a more fully functioning person therapists show empathy and provide unconditional positive regard this helps dissolve the clients conditions of worth and enables them to become more true to themselves reducing incongruence focuses on present problems rather than the past

Question 26

positive evaluation of the humanistic approach

Answer 26

+ practical applications. revolutionised counselling. many counsellors now use a client centred approach and similar ideas have been used in education. improves everyday lives. + not reductionist. avoids reducing behaviour down to the activity of specific variables such as biological or environmental factors. humanistic argues that people can only be understood by considering the whole person. Holistic approach.

Question 27

negative evaluation of the humanistic approach

Answer 27

- unscientific. ideas are not observable and measurable and cant be tested in controlled conditions. we cant see people striving for self actualisation. no empirical evidence. - based on research using non experimental methods. make it impossible to verify the results for counselling. hard to evaluate his ideas. without experimental evidence you cant be sure counselling causes the changes in the person. lacks objectivity. - rejection of determinism. suggests our behaviour is a result of our own free will, ignores the role of factors outside our control. twin studies show genes play a role.

Question 28

what is the cognitive approach

Answer 28

argues all human behaviour can be explained in terms of internal mental processes such as memory, attention and perception these cognitive processes are private and cant be observed so they are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on in peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour.

Question 29

what is the use of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach

Answer 29

one way to study internal mental processes is through the use of theoretical models one model is the information processing approach which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval e.g. multi store model of memory which models how information flows through three different memory stores the cognitive approach uses computer models where the mind is compared to as the computer and the concepts of central processing unit is the brain.

Question 30

what is the role of schema in relation to the cognitive approach

Answer 30

schema are mental frameworks of ideas and expectations developed through experience. schemas aid the interpretation of incoming info by allowing us to process info more effectively and act as a mental short cut allowing us to fill in gaps schemas prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by our environment stimuli. they help us to predict what will happen in our world as well as enabling us to process vast amounts of info they can distort our perceptions of the world due to stereotypes

Question 31

what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in relation to the cognitive approach

Answer 31

the scientific study of biological structures and functions that underpin cognitive processes advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and pet scans have allowed scientists to systematically observe the neurological basis for mental processes. e.g. tulving used tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory to show how these different types of ltm were located on opposite sides of the pre frontal cortex whilst procedural is associated with the cerebellum

Question 32

positive evaluation of the cognitive approach

Answer 32

+ scientific. observable and measurable. lab experiments have allowed researchers to infer cognitive processes. empirical evidence. + practical applications. CBT. just as effective at treating drugs for depression. help improve lives + less determinist than other approaches. does not suggest our behaviour is totally caused by factors outside of our control but instead argues we are free to think before responding to stimulus.

Question 33

negative evaluation of the cognitive approach

Answer 33

- based on research which lacks ecological validity. evidence based on artificial tasks which do not represent real life memory. may be based on flawed evidence - reductionist. reduces human behaviour down to the level of a computer - machine reductionism. ignores the role of human emotion . may be limited and over simplify complex behaviours which require a more hollisitic explanation.

Question 34

what is social learning theory

Answer 34

Bandura built on the behavioural approach and its focus on environmental learning with his SLT but argued people also learn indirectly through observation and imitation of role models

Question 35

what is vicarious reinforcement in relation to the social learning theory

Answer 35

if an individual observes a behaviour being reinforced they are likely to imitate this behaviour themselves. this is because the observer has seen consequences of the observed behaviour and expects to expieriance similar consequence if they imitate behavioyr. banduras bobo doll study

Question 36

what is identification and modelling in relation to the social learning theory

Answer 36

people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify, called role models. this process is called modelling, a person becomes a role model if they are seen to posses similar characteristics to the observer and are attractive and have high status.

Question 37

what is the role of mediational processes in relation to social learning theory

Answer 37

bandura argued mental processes were involved in learning. these mental factors mediate in the learning processes to determine whether a new response is acquired there are four mediational processes in learning Attention= the extent to which we notice behaviours Retention= how well behaviour is remembered Reproduction= the observers ability to perform the behaviour Motivation = the will to perform behaviour

Question 38

positive evaluation of the social learning theory

Answer 38

+ scientific. observable and measurable behaviour which can be tested in controlled conditions. bobo study is highly controlled. emperical evidence. + practical applications. identification and modelling has been used to encourage positive behaviour. anti alcohol adverts. improves lives + less reductionist than the behavioural approach. incorporates internal cognitive factors and how these interact with external influence. + less determinst than the behavioural approach. does not suggest our behaviour is caused by factors outside of our control. we do have the ability to choose the influence of the environment which explains why we dont all respond in the same way to our environment

Question 39

negative evaluation of the social learning theory

Answer 39

- incorporates mediational processes which cant be observed. factors like attention and motivation have to be inferred. cant emperically measure all aspects of SLT - largely based on evidence from young children in laboratory settings. may have been influenced by demand characteristics. theory may be based on flawed evidence.

Question 40

what is the biological approach

Answer 40

argues all human behaviour can be explained in terms of physical structures and processes in the brain such as genetics, neurochemistry and the nervous system.

Question 41

what is the genetic basis of behaviour in relation to the behaviourist approach.

Answer 41

twin studies and measuring concordance rates mz twins have a higher concoradnace rate for a certain characteristic than dz twins this would suggest a genetic basis. This is because mz twins share 100% of the same genes whilst dz is 50% genetic influences occur through genotypes and phenotypes the expression of a genotype is influenced by environmental factors this can change the way a phenotype is expressed.

Question 42

what is the influence of biological structures and neurochemistry in relation to the biological approach

Answer 42

studied the influence of biological structures on behaviour including the brain and the nervous system specific functions come from specific locations in the brain - localisation of function neurochemistry is another area of study focused on neurotransmitters

Question 43

what is evolution and behaviour in relation to the biological approach

Answer 43

the main mechanism behinf evolution is natural selection individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of their characteristics and behaviour and at least some of this variation is inherited. individuals must compete to access resources and those who survive and reproduce will have behaviours that are better suited for survival.

Question 44

positive evaluation of the biological approach

Answer 44

+ scientific. observable and measurbale. brain scanning. makes changes in activity clear to observe and measure. emperical evidence. + practical applications. drug therapies which aim to balance neurochemicals imbalances in the brain. helps improve lives.

Question 45

negative evaluation of the biological approach

Answer 45

- family and twin studies struggle to disentangle the influence of nature and nurture. assumes they all have genetic similarities and therefore similarities in behaviour must be genetic but this may not be true. all exposed to the same environment. findings could be supporting nurture, so evidence is flawed. - reductionist. reduces human behaviour down to biological factors and ignores the role of the environment. may be limited and oversimplify complex behaviours. - determinist. our behaviour is caused by factors outside of our control - biological determinism. mz twins dont have 100% concordance rates. approach may ignore free will