paper 3 - relationships

Question 1

what is sexual selection

Answer 1

explains the evolution of characteristics which enable reproductive success ( characteristics which are attractive to the opposite sex and enable us to successfully reproduce )

Question 2

what is anisogamy

Answer 2

-the differences between male and female sex cells ( gametes )
-key factor that determines human reproductive behaviour
- there is never a shortage of fertile males, but fertile females are seen as a resource

Question 3

what are the differences between male and female sex cells

Answer 3

• sperm = small, produced in vast quantities over a males life, do not require much energy to produce
• egg = large, produced at intervals in a females life, require a great deal of energy

Question 4

what is inter sexual selection

Answer 4

there will be a difference in the preference of one sex for the opposite sex.

Question 5

what are male mate preference strategies

Answer 5

• compete with other males in order to mate with as many fertile female as possible
• more attracted to younger females as they are more likely to be fertile as well as women with an hourglass figure as this is a sign of fertility.

Question 6

what is intra sexual selection

Answer 6

members of one sex, usually male, compete with each other for access to members of the other sex. The dominant male is able to mate and will pass on their successful characteristics ( e.g. being taller and stronger )

Question 7

what are female mate preferences

Answer 7

• have to invest more into their offspring before, during and after birth, than males so are more choosy when selecting the right male
• strength = able to protect them and their offspring
• wealth = provide food and shelter

Question 8

what is the sexy son hypothesis

Answer 8

a female mates with a male who has a desirable characteristic and this sexy trait is inherited by her son. This increases the liklihood that successive generations of females will mate with her offspring

Question 9

positive evaluation of evolutionary explanations for partners

Answer 9

+ Intrasexual comp in males. When men and women were asked how often their closest friends bragged about how much money they had or displayed their expensive possessions, in trying to attract a partner in the past 3 months, men were significantly more likely to have behaved this way than women. Men compete with each other for female attention.

+ intersexual selection. Male and female psych students approached other students and asked, “ would you sleep with me tonight ?”. Not a single female agreed but 75% of males said yes. Males have evolved a different dating stradegy to women.

+ consistent across cultures. 10,000 pple from 37 diff countries. Men consistently showed more preference for younger and physically attractive female partners and women consistently preferred men who were more financially stable. Universal.

Question 10

negative evaluation of evolutionary explanations for partners

Answer 10

• presumes heterosexuality and that all relationships are sexual. Oversimplified and does not explain all types of relationships such as long distance, or couples who choose not to have children. Assumes all relationships are motivated with the desire to reproduce. Puts doubt over theory.
• ignore rapidly changing social norms. Women do not need men to provide for them as they have a greater role in the work-place and in western countries, they have greater financial security. Male preferences may not be resource orientated. Limited.

Question 11

what are the 3 factors affecting attraction

Answer 11

1) self disclosure
2) attractiveness including matching hypothesis
3) filter theory

Question 12

what is self disclosure

Answer 12

revealing of personal info about oneself to another.
helps develop closer more intimate relationship.
only works if it is reciprocal as it is rewarding as it signals their liking of you and their desire to be more intimate

Question 13

evaluation of self disclosure

Answer 13

+ self disclosure linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples. Less intimate couples found to self disclose less often.
+ 57% of gay men and women said that open and honest self disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened committed relationships. Helps form relationships. Can be used to strengthen relationships by limiting small talk and encouraging self disclosure.

Question 14

what is physical attractiveness

Answer 14

important cue for women fertility.
face symmetry - greater symmetry = greater attractiveness as it may be a signal of genetic fitness
neotenous face ( baby face ) as it triggers protective and caring instinct.

Question 15

what is the matching hypothesis

Answer 15

people look for romantic partners who are of similar attractiveness to themselves. Involves people assessing their own attractiveness and focusing their attention on people they think are of the same level .
This is because there is less chance of being rejected and the person will feel more secure in the relationship as there is less fears that their partner might be tempted by someone else.

Question 16

evaluation of physical attractiveness

Answer 16

+ matching hypothesis. Students assigned “ ideal “ partner for upcoming dance, this was actually random. Students expressed a greater liking to their partner when they were similar levels of attractiveness, compared to those of dissimilar attractiveness.

+ ppts shown photos of genuine couples and non genuine couple to assess levels of attractiveness. Genuine couples were more likely to be judged as having similar levels of attractiveness.

Question 17

what is the filter theory

Answer 17

narrows down range of available romantic partners
1st filter = social demography
2cnd filter = similarity in attitudes
3rd filter = complementarity.

Question 18

what is the 1st filter in the filter theory - social demography

Answer 18

likelihood of meeting in the first place
- those who live near us
- work with us
- socialise with us
- similar age
- geographical location
- social class
- religion
such pple will appear more attractive as their similarity will make communication easier. Anyone too different is discounted.

Question 19

what is the 2cnd filter in the filter theory - similarity in attitudes

Answer 19

the need for new romantic partners to agree over basic values and beliefs as this makes communication easier, enabling the relationship to progress.
partners with different values are unsuitable and are filtered out.

Question 20

what is the third filter theory - complementarity

Answer 20

how well two people fit together as a couple and meet each others needs.
two people complement each other when they have traits the other is lacking.
the need to be caring and the need to be cared for.
opposites attract.

Question 21

positive evaluation of filter theory

Answer 21

+ 50% of citizens in Ohio were married to pple who lived initially within walking distance of their house. supports social demographic filter.

+ studying couples dating in college. couples dating less than 18 months reported that a similarity of attitudes was the most important factor in how close they felt. Those together longer than 18 months said complementarity is more important. Supports filter theory and changing importance of filters as relationships become deeper.
- however, 18 month cut off point does not represent long term relationships so can be problematic as you cant assume people who have been together longer have a deeper relationship.

Question 22

additional evaluation for factors affecting attraction

Answer 22

• research based on correlational data. Establishes a link but cant say that one co variable causes the change in the other. may be misleading
• lacks temporal validity. Rise of online dating has changed the process of beginning a romantic relationship. Issues of social demography, self disclosure and physical attractiveness has changed as people can present themselves differently online. less likely to be limited.
• cultural bias. most theories proposed by western researchers who live in individualist cultures like the US rather than collectivist cultures like India or china. These theories may only explain romantic relationships in this type of culture. self disclosure etc may be less important in other cultures. Explanation is limited.

Question 23

what are the three theories of romantic relationships

Answer 23

1) social exchange theory
2) equity theory
3) rusbults investment model of commitment

Question 24

what is social exchange theory

Answer 24

• all social behaviour is a series of exchange where individuals try to maximise thier rewards and minimise thier costs.
• rewards include being cared for, companionship and sex
• costs include effort, financial costs, and time wasted
• rewards minus the costs indicate the outcome and this will either be profit ot less
• the chances of a relationship being maintained depends on the profilibility of this outcome

Question 25

what is the comparison level in social exchange theory

Answer 25

we judge the profit of a relationship against a comparison level. This is a product of our expieriances in past relationships. If we judge the profit in a relationship exceeds our CL, the relationship will be judged as worthwhile, but not if the outcome is negative.

Question 26

what is the comparison level of alternatives

Answer 26

people may also wiegh up the potential increase in rewards offered by alternative partners, minus the costs of ending the current relationship. A relationship can only be maintained if there is no profit to be made from such alternative relationships.

Question 27

evaluation for social exchange theory

Answer 27

+it was found successful marriages had a 5:1 ratio of positive to negative exchanges, but in unsuccessful marriages, this ratio was much lower at 1:1 or less. Those in successful marriages feel they recieve more profit an theirfore their relatonship is maintained. + practical applications. Intergrated behavioural couples therapy help partners to break negative patterns of behaviour that may be perceived as costs in a relationship in order to make relationships more positive and profitable. Resulted in significant improvements for about two thirds of relationships analysed. - doesnt state the amount of loss there has to be for a relationship to become unsatisfactory. E.G there are likely to be individual differences in terms of how much lower than the CL a relationship has to be before the relationship cannot be maintained. Suggests SET is complete.

Question 28

what is equity theory

Answer 28

- economic model of romantic relationships - people strive to achieve fairness in their relationships - people are most comfortable and satisifed when they get out of a relationship what they put in (rewards and costs ) - to be truly equitable, one partners benefits minus the costs should be equal to the other partners benefits minus their costs - people who give a great deal and get little in return (underbenefitted ), expeirances resentment and anger - those who receieve a great deal and get little in return ( over benefitted ) , results in guilt and shame - causes dissatisfaction and motivation to restore equity

Question 29

poitive evaluation of equity theory

Answer 29

+ 200 married couples, satisfaction was highest for those who perceieved their relationships to be equitable, followd by overbenefitted partners, followed by underbenefitted partners. Consistent with the predictions of equity theory

Question 30

negative evaluation of equity theory

Answer 30

- gender biased. when husbands earned more than wives they rated their own career as more important than thier wives career, and the wives generally agreed. However, in couples where the womens income is generally higher neither partner rated their career as more important than the other. Wives seek less for themselves than husbands. Theory assumes equity is perceieved the same by men and women when this might not be the case. - close relationships are to complex to allow for presice assessment of various rewards and costs involved in establishing equity. It is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships as much input in emotional and therfore unquantifiable. Theory may explain non romantic relationships better.

Question 31

what are the three components of rusbults investment model of commitment

Answer 31

1) satisfaction 2) comparison with alternatives 3) investment all lead to commitment

Question 32

what is satisfaction in rusbults model of investment

Answer 32

- refers to the extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of the relationship outweigh the costs.

Question 33

what is comparison with alternatives in rusbults investment model of commitment

Answer 33

refers ot individuals assessing whether a relationship with a different partner ( or no partner ) would bring more rewards and less costs.

Question 34

what is investment in rusbults model of commitment

Answer 34

refers to resources contributed towards the relationships which would be lost if the relationship were to end. Investements may include shared freinds, time, energy, possessions, and self disclosures and these can give strong motivation to maintain relationships

Question 35

what is commitment in rusbults investment model of commitment

Answer 35

main pyschological factor that causes people to stay together for longer. commitment is high in romantic partners who have high levels of satisfaction, have little to gain from a new relationship ( quality of alternatives is low ) and a lot to lose from ending current relationship ( investment is high ). if commitment is low when satisfaction levels and investment in the relationship are both low and the quality of alternatives are high.

Question 36

positive evaluation of rusbults investment model of commitment

Answer 36

+ meta analysis of 52 studies over 30 years including 11000 ppts from 5 countries. Found that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment all predicted relationship comitement and that the most committed relationships were the most stable and long lasting. + explains why some women stay in abusive relationships. when a large amount of investment has been made ( e.g children ) and alternatives are low ( nowhere else to live ) commitment can still remian high despite satisfaction being very low. Also explains infedelity as this behaviour would occur when there is low satisfacrion with the current relationship and high satisfaction with the alternative relationship, therfore lowering commitment. Explains real life issues.

Question 37

negative evaluation of rusbults investment model of committment

Answer 37

- oversimplifies idea of investment. Investment is more than resources put into a relationship but also any future plans the couples may make together. They are more motivated to commit to each other, because they want to see their cherished plans come to fruition. Model is limited as it does not recognise complexity.

Question 38

additional evaluation points for theories of romantic relationships

Answer 38

- culturally bias. Most theories proposed by researchers from individualist cultures rather than collectivist. some cultures might have different views on profitabilty, equity or satisfaction. Limted as they are not universal. - flawed research. rely on self report methods which often have problems with ppts wishing to present themselves in a positive light ( social desirabilty bias ). Based on invalid findings.

Question 39

what are the four different phases in ducks model of relationship breakdowns

Answer 39

each phase is marked by one partner reaching a threshold, a point at which their perception of the relationship changes. This process begins once a partner realises that they are dissatisfied with the relationship and are distressed about the way things are going 1) intrapsychic 2) dyadic 3) social 4) grave dressing

Question 40

what is the intrapyschic phase in ducks phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 40

- one person is privatley dissatisfied with the relationship - focuses on cognitive processes within the individual - dissatisfied partner broods on the reasons for his or her dissatisfaction, centring on their partners inadequacies - they worry about problems to come - partner considers their thoughts privatley, and may share them with a trusted friend. - they will consider the pros and cons of the relationship and evaluate these against alternatives and will consider expressing dissatisfaction to their partner

Question 41

what is the dyadic phase in ducks phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 41

- " i would be justified in leaving " - focuses on interpersonal processed between two partners to discuss their feelings, discontentment and the future of the relationship - anger, guilt and hostility likely to surface - couples will wither commit to repairing relationship or will remain determine to breakup

Question 42

what is the social phase in ducks phases of relationship breakdown

Answer 42

- focus is now on wider processes involving the couples social networks - breakdown has happened, the distress expierianced by both partners becomes public and so it is difficult for either partner to now deny any problens and bring about a reconciliation - friends can offer support and advixe or help to mediate - negotation about practicalties e.g. the division of assests

Question 43

what is the grave dressing phase in ducks phases of relationship breakdown

Answer 43

- focus is on the aftermath - relationship is over and partners attempt to justify their actions - they publically distribute their own version of the reasons for the breakup and the individual will perfrom getting over it activities e.g. going out - each partner will try and present themselves as trustworthy and loyal as these are key attributes to attract a future relationship - reinterpretaion of how their ex is viewed, where qualities that were once attractive are now seen more negatively

Question 44

posititve evaluation of ducks phases of relationship breakdown

Answer 44

+ reseatch shows when an individual expeiriances initial dissatisfaction with a relationship, they are burdened by resentment and feelings of being under benefitted, this leads to social withdrawel so that the individual can consider their position. Strenghtens theory + prac apps. good face validity as most people can relate to it. relationship counselling helps partners to identify stages of breakdown and also inform them of how to reverse it. Beneficial effects on partners.

Question 45

negative evaluation of ducks phases of relationship breakdown

Answer 45

- too simplistic. not universal as they do not apply in every case of relationship breakdown and they do not always occur in the order. A 5th phase was added called the ressurection phase where partners reflect on the breakdown and use expeiriances gained to prepare for future relationships. Argued you can move to any phase at any point. Limited - retrospective. Ppts give their expeiriances of the breakdown process sometime after the relationship has ended. This means that what they can recall might not always be accurate or reliable. Early stages tend to be ignored. Questions validity. - ethical issues. It is a sensitive issue that focuses om emotionally vulnerable ppts and the trauma of revisiting often difficult breakups means there are limitations on the degree of depth researchers are sometimes able to go to. LImits our understanding of some of the complex issues.

Question 46

how does self disclosure differ in virtual dating

Answer 46

there is greater anonymity online and less fear of rejection or ridicule. Also, the sender of a message has more time to manipulate their online image and what to disclose (selective self presentation) which makes it much easier to promote intimacy As a result SD may occur earlier online and be more intense and intimmate It can develop and end more quickly online, because the high level excitement isnt matched by the level of trust between the partners involved ( boom and bust phenonemon )

Question 47

what is gating

Answer 47

any barrier or obstacle to the formation of relationships such as physical unatractivness, a stammer and social anxiety

Question 48

how does gating differ in virtual relationships

Answer 48

absence of gating allows relationship to get off the ground in a way that is less likely to happen face to face. it refocuses attention on self disclosure and away from superficial and distancing features. relationship can devlop to the point where self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper

Question 49

positive evaluation of virtual relationships

Answer 49

+ analysed large number of research findings and concluded questions in online disscussions tend to be very direct, probing and intimate with direct responses. Different from real life small talk. supports hyperpersonal model that we self disclose more online + lonely and socially anxious people were more able to express their true selves than in face to face.of the online relationships 70% lasted more than 2 years which is a higher success rate than those formed offline. absence of gating + absence of gating can have wider effects to pple in offlien world. More able to express true selves online and thsi will enhance their self image, increases their chances of meeting someone.

Question 50

negative evaluaton of virtual relationships

Answer 50

- wrong to see online different from offline. Modern relationships conduct both online or offline. what we choose to dislcose online relationships will influence our offlien interactions. Over simplistic to assume relationships are either online or offline.

Question 51

what is a parasocial relationship

Answer 51

one sided, unreciprocated relationship whereby an individual is attracted to another, usually a celeb, who is unaware of their exsistance

Question 52

what is the absorption addition model

Answer 52

people who have perceieved deficencies in their own lives, such as lack of fullfillment in everyday relationships, they can become preoccupied with a celeb and identify with them in order to acheieve a sense of fullfillment ( absorption) if the individual needs to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling stronger and closer, this can lead to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking ( addiction )

Question 53

what are the 3 levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 53

1) entertainment social 2) inetnse personal 3) borderline patholgical

Question 54

what is entertainment social

Answer 54

- least intense level of celeb worship - fans are attracted to a fave celeb and will learn about them for the purpose of entertainment and gossip

Question 55

what is intense personal

Answer 55

- intermedediate level - reflects greater sense of personal involvment with the celeb - frequnet obsessive thoughts and intense feelings

Question 56

what is borderline pathological

Answer 56

- strongest level of celeb worship - uncontrollable fantasies - extreme behaviours - spending large sums of money on a celeb related objects

Question 57

evaluation of parasocial relationships

Answer 57

+ absoption addiction model. 14-16 yr old females who had poor body image also reported intense personal PSR with a female celeb whose body shape they admired. Positive supports prediction that there is a correlation between the level of celeb worship and perceieved deficiencies in their own lives. + universal. fans feeling towards harry potter in germany and mexico. found both countries had a similar pattern of PSR with harry potter, regardless of their cultural norms. - better description than explanation. desrcirbes characteristics of people who are absorbed and addicted to a celeb but unlike attachment theory is isnt able to explain how characteristics develop. questions validity

Question 58

what is the ayyachment theory

Answer 58

an individuals willingness to form a parasocial relationship with a celeb is related to their attachment in childhood. - insecure resistant - most lilkely to form PSR as they need to have unfullfilled needs met, but in a relationship that is not accompanied by the threat of rejection, break up an dissapointment that real life relationships bring. - insecure avoidant - least likely as they find it difficult to develop intimate relationships and so avoid both real and imagined intamcy - secure - most likely to engage in real relationships less intersted in celes as they do not have unfullfiulled need for attachment

Question 59

what does the attachment theory say about proximity seeking and separation anxiety

Answer 59

proximity seeking = individual attempts to reduce distance between themselves and attachment figure ( e.g. sending fan letters seperation anxiety = individuals expeiriance severe emotinal reaction to a celeb being axed from a show or when the show comes to an end

Question 60

positive evaluation of attachment theory

Answer 60

+ measured attraction in celebs, found adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes towards obsessive behaviours and stalking and also that pathological attachment types have a tendancy to stalk. + insecure resistant attachment were more liley to have parasocial relationships with tv media personalities than those with secure and insecure avoidant attachments.

Question 61

negative evaluation of attachment theories

Answer 61

- measured attachment types and celeb related attitides in ppts. found that ppts with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebs than ppts with secure attachments. . fails to support a central prediction of attachment theory, doubts validty.

Question 62

additional evaluation for explanations of parasocial relationships

Answer 62

- based on flawed evidence. self report techniques such as questionaires, ppts tried to present themselves in a better light. doubts validity. - uses correlational data. can only establish relationship between two co variables but cant say one co variable caused the change in the other. factors affecting attraction may be misleading.