paper 3 - issues and debates

Question 1

what is universality

Answer 1

refers to any characteristics, traits or behaviours of human beings that can be applied to all.
drawing conclusions that can be generalised to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture

Question 2

what is bias

Answer 2

the tendency to view things in a way that is unbalanced or unfair
exaggerating or ignoring differences that exist between people or groups of people

Question 3

what is gender bias in psychology

Answer 3

whether the differences between males and females are either exaggerated or ignored
- androcentrism
- alpha bias

Question 4

what is androcentrism in gender bias

Answer 4

tendency of psychological research and theory to focus on men and neglect or exclude women

Question 5

what is alpha bias in gender bias

Answer 5

tendency to exaggerate the differences between men and women
either enhances or undervalues members of either sex

Question 6

what is an example of alpha bias in psychology

Answer 6

• freuds psychosexual development
  freud argues that during the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus complex which involves castration anxiety’s which help drive their moral development (superego).
  however, females are seen as inferior to males as they are jealous of men penises ( penis envy )
  they cant experience castration so cant develop their morality, so are morally inferior to men
• can also use bowlbys monotropic theory ( mum more important than dad )

Question 7

what is beta bias in gender bias

Answer 7

tendency to ignore or minimise the differences between men and women
what is true for men must also be true for women, therefore minimising gender differences

Question 8

what is an example of beta bias

Answer 8

• fight or flight
  based on early research with male animals ( preferred for research as female hormones fluctuate ) and was assumed to be universal response to threats
  rescent research shows females respond differently with a tend and befriend response where fight or flight is inhibited so that attention can be shifted to caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females
• could also use milgram. All male study 65%. might not apply to females

Question 9

positive evaluation of gender bias

Answer 9

+ one way to tackle androcentrism is through reverse alpha bias. Researchers have aimed to emphasise the value of women by showing instances where women outperform men. E.G. research has shown women are better at learning because they are more attentive and organised. Helps challenge stereotypes that males are better.

Question 10

negative evaluation of gender bias

Answer 10

• provides scientific justification to deny women oppertunities in society. Female concerns neglected in the research Qs asked. Leads to inaccurate assumptions about female behaviour that has reinforced negative female stereotypes and validated discrimination at work and society. when men set the standard for society it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal. Damages lives and prospects of women.
• research methods used to test and observe males and females may also be gender biased. preferneces of lab based research disadvantages women because the findings created in a controlled setting tell us little about the experiances of women outside these settings. e.g. lab based studies found men were judged as more effective leaders, studies in real life settings found men and women were judged as more similar in styles of leadership. methods used may lead to alpha bias

Question 11

what is cultural bias

Answer 11

tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions
cultural differences are distorted or ignored

Question 12

what is ethnocentrism

Answer 12

use of our own cultural groups as a basis for judgment about other groups
includes a tendency to view beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as normal and even superior whereas those groups who are deviant, abnormal or underdeveloped

Question 13

what is an example of cultural bias/ ethnocentrism

Answer 13

• factors affecting attraction are found in the UK to be hourglass figure in women, but this differs e.g. in fiji big is beautiful as it is a sign of health and so chosen by males. this differences is not considered in research - minimised as it does not take into account other countries preferences
• could also use diagnosis of sz ( Caribbean males are 8 x more likely to be diagnosed )

Question 14

what is cultural relativism

Answer 14

behaviour cant be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates
no universal or standards of behaviour common to all cultures and instead these norms or standards are determined by and within each particular culture

Question 15

what is an etic approach

Answer 15

looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture to describe those behaviours that are universal

Question 16

what is an emic approach

Answer 16

from within or inside certain cultures and describes behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 17

positive evaluation of culture bias

Answer 17

+ reducing ethnocentrism. Encouraging indigenous ( emic ) pyschologies - the development of different groups of theories in different cultures e.g. afrocentrism is amovement whivh disputes the view that european values are universal suggesting theories concerning african people must be african centered and must express african values.

+ aspects of emic and etic approaches can be combined. To achieve this by avoiding culture bias you can use indigenous researchers in each cultural setting. e.g study of whether mate preference is universal by using 3 local researchers in each of the 37 cultures studied. May be possible to study the universality of human behavior in cross cultural research without ignoring the norms and values of the different cultures being studied.

Question 18

negative evaluation of gender bias

Answer 18

• provides scientific justification to deny people from certain cultural groups oppertunities in society. e.g. US ary IQ test used before ww1. Test showed immigrants fell slightly below white americans and african americans were at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age. This data had effects on attitudes held by americans towards certain cultural groups. Culturally biased research has neg effects on people lives
• the emic approach assumes there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. e.g. it was found that basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human world. such as interactional synchrony which is seen al over the world. Suggests the full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups.

Question 19

what is free will

Answer 19

we have the power to consciously control and make choices about out thoughts and behaviour.
does not deny that there may be biological and environmental factors but implies we are able to reject these forces as the masters of our own destiny
advocated by humanistic pyschologists such as rogers and maslow

Question 20

what is an example of free will

Answer 20

• milgram - 35% of ppts didnt obey despite situational variables e.g. lab coat, yale uni
  they chose to withdraw from the study and stop before giving 450 v shock. They were found to be more likely to have an internal locus of control

Question 21

positive evaluation of free will

Answer 21

+ although not based on scientific evidence, everyday experiances gives the impression that we are excersisng free will through the choices we make giving face validity the concept of free will.
+ research suggests that people who feel more in control of their own behaviour ( high loc ) they are more likely to resist conformity pressures. Suggests even if we do not have free will, thinking we have free will can have a positive impact on our behaviour

Question 22

negative evaluation of free will

Answer 22

• impossible to test. it is a non physical phenomenom and such is difficult to quantify and measure. As pysch is a science the fact that somthing without physical presence can affect behaviour disagree with the discipline. free will is not measurable because it does not exist.
• research has found that brain activity determines what we perceive to be choices. ppts could choose whetehr to press a button with their left or right hand. Brain activity was monitored and showed that the brain activity occurred 10 secs before ppts were consciously aware of making a descion. Suggests most basic exeriances of freewill are determined by our brain before we become aware of them

Question 23

what is determinism

Answer 23

we do not have conscious control over our thoughts and behaviour ad that instead our behaviour is controlled by our internal or external factors acting upon us

Question 24

what is hard determinism

Answer 24

everything that we think or do is dictated by internal or external forces that we cant consciously control
all behaviour has a cause, there is no free will

Question 25

what is soft determinism

Answer 25

a version of determinism that allows for some element of free will whilst acknowledging that all human action has a cause does not detract from the freedom we have to make conscious choices in everyday sitautions important in the cognitive approach

Question 26

what is biological determinism

Answer 26

behaviour is caused by biological ( genetic, hormonal, evolutionary ) influences that we cant control

Question 27

what is an example of biological determinism

Answer 27

faulty MAOA gene breaks down too much serotonin so doesnt inhibit the amygdala this causes aggression - you can also use genetic explanations of OCD and SZ

Question 28

what is environmental determinism

Answer 28

behaviour is caused by features of the environment ( such as systems of reward and punishment ) that we cant control

Question 29

what is an example of environmental determinism

Answer 29

agressive computer games desensitise a person to aggressive acts, they beleive it is normal. This causes aggression. - you can also use expressed eotion e.g. verbal critiscm increases chance of relapse for sz,

Question 30

what is psychic determinism

Answer 30

advocated by the psychodynamic approach behavior is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cant control

Question 31

what is an example of psychic determinism

Answer 31

people have unconscious conflicts that determine behaviour e.g. in the phallic stage children go through the oedipus complex and electra complex. The oedipus complex provides mental challenge - give up feelings for mum or be castrated, this causes boys to develop stronger morals than girls - or you can use little Hans to develop a phobia of horses

Question 32

positive evaluation of determinism

Answer 32

+ prac applications. theory that sz was caused by an over transmission of dopamine led to the development of antipyschotic medication to block dopamine D2 receptors and these have been effective in reducing symptoms. Emphasis on cause and effect has enabled researchers to predict and control events to benefit real peoples lives +brain activity determines what we percieve to be choices. ppts choose whether to press a nutton with their left or roght hand. brain activity ocurred 10 secs before ppts were consciously aware of making a descision. our most basic experiances of free will are determined by our brain.

Question 33

negative evaluation of determinism

Answer 33

- a problem with bth biological and environmental determinism is that neither internal or external forces on their own are likely to explain all behaviour. E.g. twin studies have found mz twins have an identical genetic makeup have concordance rates of around 40% for sz compared to 7% dz who share 50% of genes. concordance rates are not 100% in mz which suggests genes dont entriely determine behaviour. -incompatible with the legal system. e.g. rsearch into maoa gene in aggression argues thatwe my be pre programmed to be aggressive an therefore we have no free will over our agressive behaviour. may be seen as wrong to punish these people.

Question 34

what is the interactionist approach

Answer 34

middle ground between determinism and free will - encorporates both sides of the debate such as SLT might offer a more soft determinism position whereby we are strongly influenced by environemntal factors outside of our control whilst also having a cognitive element ( mediational processes which we argue we are free to choose who or what to attend and when to perform certain behaviours )

Question 35

what is an example of the interactionist approach

Answer 35

the diathesis stress model suggests that a genetic predisposition ( biological determinism ) and environmental stressors ( environmental determinism) both make it more likely that will develop sz but it is not garunteed - also can use CBT (p) - we have automatic thoughts but we choose which we pay attention to and which to pay attention to and which to filter out or change

Question 36

what is the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 36

the arguement as to whether a persons development is mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences

Question 37

what is the nature side of the debate

Answer 37

- human behaviours are innate - tey are a result of heredity - people who follow this debate are refered to as nativists - key focus is genetic inheritance - studied using twin, family and adoption studies - also look at the evolutionary approach that any behaviour is adaptive ( good for survival )

Question 38

what is an example of the nature side of the debate

Answer 38

- localisation of function - brocas and wernickes - born with your brain that way - MAOA gene for aggression - could be born with a faulty MAOA gene that could cause aggression

Question 39

evaluation of nature

Answer 39

- impossible to separate out the influence of nurture when studying the effects of nature. E.G. twin studies is often difficult to tell whether high concordance rates in MZ twins are the result of sharing more genes in common with their twin than DZ twins (nature) or whether MZ twins are being treated more similar (nurture). Supports the view that heredity and the envirnment cannot b meanigfully separated.

Question 40

what is the nurture side of the debate

Answer 40

- the mind is a blank slate ( tabula rasa ) at birth upon which learning and experiance writes are referred to as empiricists - focus on the role of nurture is a key part of the behaviourist approach and SLT as both approaches explain behaviour in terms of learning from the environment and experiance.

Question 41

what is an example of nurture

Answer 41

- deindividuation - large group/uniform milgram - lab coat - higher rate of obediance, the environment affects the way people act - phobias - 2 process model - learn to have a phobia

Question 42

evaluation of nurture side of the debate

Answer 42

- suggestion that nurture affects nature. Brain scanning research demonstrates how new learning can affect the physical structure of our brains (plasticity ). E.G. london taxi drivers. Learning from the environment can influence internal biology. - nature can affect nurture. if a child is more genetically aggressive, this might provoke an ggressive response in others. This response then becomes apart of the childs environment and affects the childs development (nature). as children grow older they seek out experiances and environments that suit their genes. E.G. child with natural talent for music more likely to chose friends with similar talent. Suggests that our genes can shape our environment in different ways, suggesting a complex multi layered relationship between nature and nurture.

Question 43

what is the modern day view on nature and nurture

Answer 43

- impossibe to answer - environmental influences in a childs life begins as soon as it is born - nature and nurture are intertwined - focus now on the relative importance of heredity and the environment - most research takes an interactionist approach where there is a combo of nature and nurture as well as how these factors interact

Question 44

what is the evaluation for the interactionist approach ( nature vs nurture )

Answer 44

+ Tienari. Compared adopted children whose bio mother had sz to a control group with no genetic risk. Found much higher rate of sz among those whose bio mothers had sz (nature). however, it was found that a healthy adoptive family could protect against those with high genetic risk. - unclear exactley how nature and nurture interact. we dont fully understand the mechanisms by which these factors interact to produce these effects. This suggests the interactionist approach is limited in its abilty to explain how behaviours begin.

Question 45

what is reductionism

Answer 45

involves breaking down complex behaviour down into more simple component parts. also implies that this process is more desirable because complex phenomena are the best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation can be explained in levels of reductionism/ levels of explanation in pyschology

Question 46

what is the highest level of reductionism

Answer 46

- social and cultural explanations which are considered the most broad, general and hollistic explanations. at this level behaviour is explained in terms of how wider social an cultural groups affect our behaviour

Question 47

what is the middle level of reductionism

Answer 47

- psychological explanations seen as more specicfic at this level behaviour is explained in terms of psychological processes such as cognitive processes

Question 48

what is the lowest level of reductionism

Answer 48

- biological explanations considered the most presice, simplest and reductionist at this level behaviour is explained in terms of brain structure, neurochemistry, hormomes and genetics

Question 49

what is an example of reductionism

Answer 49

memory can be explained in terms of social levels in terms of how cultural expectations affect what we remember (schema) it can be xplained at a pyschological level in terms of memory (episodic) it can also be explained at a biological level in terms of brain areas where memories are stored (e.g. hypothalamus) and the neurotransmitters involved

Question 50

what is biological reductionism

Answer 50

form of reductionism that attempts to explain all behaviour at the lowest level in terms of the brain, neurochemistry, hormones and genetics since all animals are made of atoms then human behaviour must be explainable at this level ( it can be reduced to a physical level )

Question 51

what is an example of biological reductionism

Answer 51

SZ being explained by a high density of D2 receptors in the mesolimbic pathway causing high dopamine transmission and the negative symptoms of sz

Question 52

what is environmental reductionism

Answer 52

attempts to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus response links that have been learned through experiance behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events in the environement

Question 53

what is an example of environmental reductionism

Answer 53

sz being caused by looking at family dysfunction e.g. faulty communication patterns e.g. double bind messages causing confusions and delusions

Question 54

what is the positive evaluation of reductionism

Answer 54

+ highly scientific. to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviour down into constituent parts. Makes it impossible to to isolate variables in order to manipulate them or control them in lab experiments or record observations - in a way that is presice and reliable. gives psych better scientific credibility. + prac apps. e.g. reducing complex mental illnesses e.g. sz down to the level of a neurotransmitter has led to development of drug therapies. Also reducing phobias down to stimulus response has led to sytsematic desensitisation.

Question 55

negative evaluation of reductionism

Answer 55

- more reductionist lower levels of explanation cant provide a complete understanding of many behaviours. This is because they operate at a level of the gene or neuron and dont consider vital info about social context of behaviour which means its meaning may be lost. E.G. physical processes involved in pointing your finger will be the same regardless of the context but this cant tell us why the finger was pointed. reductionist explanations can only form part of an explanation.

Question 56

what is holism

Answer 56

perceiving complex behaviour as a whole including all of its constituent parts interacting as one implied that the simple components do not express the essence of the full behaviur or experiance - the sum of parts does not equal the whole

Question 57

positive evaluation of hollism

Answer 57

+ some behaviours can only be understood with a more holistic, higher level of explanation. E.G. the effects of conformity seen by asch only emerges within an interactive social context and cant be understood at the levels of the individual group members. may be possible to understand some behaviours at a lower level explanation, some behaviours require more complete and general understanding of the full context.

Question 58

negative evaluation of hollism

Answer 58

- vague and unscientific. E.G. considering a wide range of factors in a given behaviour ( depression ) it becomes difficult to establish which factor is most influentail and which one for example, to focus on as a basis for therapy. Problem as holistic approaches such as that taken by humanistic psych is often seen as a loose set of concepts which lack emperical evidence.