What are the two learning approaches?
What assumptions do they make?
- ) behaviour and SLT
2. ) born a blank slate and we learn to act in certain ways and all our behaviours learnt.
Behaviourist approach what are the 2 types of conditioning and definitions of each?
What do behaviourists consider?
1,) Operant conditioning- likelihood of carrying out behaviour is dependant on consequences. Reinforcement causes behaviour to be repeated likely whereas punishment discourages a behaviour being repeated. Eg. Skinners rats
Classical conditioning - association learning where a neutral stimulus starts to elicit conditioned response eg. Pavlov’s dogs
2.) they consider stimuli in the environment and how this affects the persons response
Pavlovs dogs and skinners rats example of what two types of conditioning and then outline each?
Evaluation of these studies?
Pavlovs dogs is classical conditioning where neutral stimulus begins to elicit conditioned response. Before conditioning shown food (UCS) then salivated (UCR). Then rang a bell (NS) whilst showing food and dog salivated (UCR). Due to association bell becomes (CS) due too association between bell and food.
Skinners rats = example of operant which is consequence learning. Animals put in box and if they pressed lever they got food. Another version was pressed lever and stopped series of shocks. Adding food = + reinforcement and taking away shocks = negative reinforcement.
2.) Animal studies hard to generalise. Animals less intelligent/ less developed eg. Less developed cerebral cortex. Use of controlled conditions is scientific in skinners
Good application to real life eg. Punishment in schools prisons etc stopping misbehaving.
Is determinist as ignored free will and also ignores our thought processes.
How does SLT suggest we learn behaviour?
What’s vicarious reinforcement is SLT?
- ) learning through observation or experience. We see consequences of behaviour and we decide whether we want to carry it out in future or not.
- ) we observe another persons behaviour being reinforced so we are more likely to imitate it. Suggests the importance of observations, imitation and role models ( more likely to copy those we identify with).
Mediational processed involved in learning in SLT?
Banduras study outline?
Evaluation
Attention (notice behaviour and its consequences) , retention (remembering behaviour and consequences) , production (being able to carry out behaviour), motivation (wanting to imitate the behaviour controlled by whether behaviours reinforced or not.
2.) bobo doll study that found children inmitate adults and that we are more likely to imitate before if it’s reinforced. Aimed to see if behaviours learnt through observations. 72 p’s aged 3-6 even split of gender.
3 categories: aggressive, none aggressive and no role models . Aggressive acted more aggressively than non aggressive role model so behaviour leant through observations.
3.) Unethical to teach kids violence and since only kids studied hard to generalise findings to adults so lacks pop val.
Unnatural as carried out in lab conditions.
Application to real life as has reduced amount of cigarettes adverts and explains lots of behaviours eg . Smoking
Allows for thought processes so isn’t reductionist
Bio approach what does it believe?
Genotype definition?
Phenotype definition?
Example of environment interaction with genetics?
Evaluation of bio approach
Behaviour is controlled by our physiology and biology such as our genetics, our CNS and chemistry. We are born with 23 chromosome pairs inherited from parents.
- ) our genetic makeup eg. Our 23 pairs of chromosomes
- ) the expression of our genotype through our characteristics
4.) the expression of our genotype (our phenotype) is also affected by our environment. Eg. May have genetic potential to be tall but poor nutrition may stunt growth.
5.) drug treatments targeting biological basis are very effective for most people. Also tech eg. Brain scans has shown that different behaviours have different brain activity.
Bio approach is reductionist eg simplistic view and it’s also determinist suggesting we have no free will and our behaviours predetermined.
Can’t be completely accurately as we would perhaps be more similar to relatives so links to concordance rate point.
Twin study bio approach
Evolution of human behaviour explain?
- ) They are used to study effect of genetics. If monozygotic twins have a higher concordance rate for a behaviour then it suggests there’s a genetic basis to disorder. Eg . Schizophrenia 48% vs 17% my vs dz. however limited as if solely genetic would be 100%
- ) Human behaviours develop in same way as our characteristics. We adopt behaviours that increase our chance of survival and these are passed on due to natural selection eg. Fear of snakes
Cognitive approach what does it suggest?
What do our mental processes contain and how to study?
Our behaviours occur due too our cognitive processes (beliefs, thoughts, perceptions.) Our behaviour is influenced by how we see the world and ourselves (schemas). Schemas are affected by childhood experiences. Schemas affected by childhood experiences.
Can’t be observed so need scientific studying. Include: memory, perception etc. Suggests we make inferences and thought processes occurring between stimulus and response are important.
Computer model explanation
What’s a schema?
Cognitive approach evaluation
Info flows through brain by input~ processing~ output. And says we can test different parts of the model. It assumes our mind is similar to a computer with out our brain as central processing unit helping to code info into useable format.
Helped contribute to therapies eg. CBT which has helped treat various disorders. Helped increase our understanding of psychological abnormalities eg . Phobias
Less determinist than other approaches
Bugelski and Alampay study relating to cognitive approach
Outline procedure
Findings
- ) p’s given a sheet with faces on or animal drawings on however last picture was same for both groups and asked to identify what the last image was.
- ) Found those previously shown faces were more likely to say man whereas those who had previously seen animals were more likely to say rat suggesting our schemas affect our interpretations of objects
Cognitive neuroscience what does it look at?
Examples of brain imaging techniques built in last 20 years? What do these entail?
- ) the biological basis to thought processes. It is the study of different parts of the brain on mental processes.
- ) fMRI and PET scanners. Do cognitive tasks while brain is being scanned and shows what parts of the brain are involved doing certain tasks. Has helped provide us neurological understanding of some psychological disorders eg . Showing which parts of the brain are more or less active in OCD
Humanistic approach who made it ?
What does it suggest?
What’s free will
Rogers and Maslow
Puts focus on the self and emphasises: subjective experiences, free will and self - actualisation
We are in control of our own behaviour. Laws and morals control us slightly but we are generally in control. Everybody is unique so can’t generalise our behaviours and objective methods can’t be used as human behaviours subjective.
What’s self actualisation in humanistic approach?
What are selves? What’s congruence?
How do we achieve congruence ?
Humans have innate drive to become our best self. Once we become this it’s called self- actualisation. This state is unique to every person. Suggests importance of personal growth where we are constantly developing and changing to be fulfilled.
3 selves which need to be similar to get self - actualisation. These are : self- concept (how you see yourself), ideal self (self you want to be) , real self (the self you actually are which are to judge as subjective). Congruence is where all 3 selves need to be the same for self actualisation to happen. Hard to reach so many don’t get self actualisation.
Too achieve congruence we need to experience unconditional positive regard where somebody loves us unconditionally eg. Parents, partner etc.
Conditions of worth I’m humanistic approach what are they?
What’s client-centred therapy
These are conditions we feel we need to be loved and this can stop somebody reaching unconditional positive regard. Therapists can give somebody unconditional positive regard so they can reach congruence.
Client finds solution in supportive and non judgmental environment. Therapist will make client feel accepted through unconditional positive regard. Client will feel comfortable being honest and remove obstacles preventing congruence. CBT has now brought in humanistic idea of subjective experience.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in humanism approach? Explain
Sheffield et al study( not crucial)
5 types of needs we need to achieve to reach self-actualisation. Everybody has drive to achieve self- actualisation and so are all working through these needs. Can’t move up pyramid until have fulfilled current need. Self- actualisation isn’t permanent and you can drop down hierarchy. 5 tiers include : physiological , safety, love,esteem , self-actualisation
185 undergraduates shoeing positive correlation between self-actualisation and psychological health. Both of these measured by closed questions in a questionnaire. Suggests self- actualisation links to satisfaction.
Evaluation of humanistic:
Client centred therapy has proven to be effective so the the humanistic approach is useful
It isn’t reductionist so may be more useful than other approaches
Hierarchy of needs is based on individualist cultures rather than collectivist so may not be applicable to all cultures such as India.
Lacks empirical evidence as isn’t a scientific approach as doesn’t think people can be tested using scientific methods however doesn’t try to be scientific so hard to criticise.
Psychodynamic approach talks about interaction between which two minds?
3 elements making up our personality? What defends us against conflict between these elements?
What happens if you are deprived in a psychosexual stage of development ?
Unconscious definition-
Preconscious-
- ) The conscious and unconscious mind. It puts emphasis on early childhood.
- ) id, ego and superego. Ego defence mechanisms help prevent conflict between these elements eg. Repression, displacement and denial.
- ) your behaviour in adulthood may be negatively affected.
- ) thoughts , feelings and memories we aren’t aware of. Unconscious mind controls lots of our behaviours.
- ) Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times but easily can be recalled.
- ) the part of our mind we are aware of- our everyday thoughts and feelings.
Our personality structure: all 3 elements of personality always in conflict and our personality is controlled by strength of these elements.
Define the ID?
Superego?
Ego?
- ) It’s like the devil on your shoulder and based on pleasure principle. It’s with your from birth and wants everything instantly and doesn’t have morals.
- ) superego = our conscience and therefore opposes ID acting on morality principle. Develops later in childhood where we identify with parents attitudes.
- ) ego is our conscious self that develops in early childhood balancing demands of ID and superego. Based on reality principle balancing real world demands against id drives.
Purpose of ego defence mechanisms?
3 defence mechanisms and summaries of each?
- ) they protect our conscious self from conflict between Id and superego. Unsuccessful attempt to do so can cause clinical disorder like anxiety or phobia.
- ) displacement is where you put feelings on a substitute instead of initial target as considered unacceptable to put feelings on initial target eg. Kicking table instead of person you’re annoyed with.
Denial is where you will not accept the truth
Repression is where you push unwanted memories or emotions into unconscious mind eg. Fired from work but still turn up
What do we seek pleasure from in psychosexual stages? What happens if we don’t complete a stage?
Oral stage?
Anal stage?
Phallic stage?
We seek pleasure from objects and if we don’t complete a stage eg. If we are deprived then we become fixated.
Oral stage is 0-1 year where the mouth is centre of pleasure eg. Sucking , breast feeding etc. Fixation at this stage due to too much or too little can cause drinking, excessive neediness, smoking etc.
Anal stage is 1-3 years old where excretion is main pleasure and is first time infant has control. They can show obedience or not by removing or holding in faeces. Fixation may lead to obsession with hygiene possibly even OCD.
Pleasure is from genital stimulation and 3-5 years old and development differs between sexes at this stage and important for gender development. Oedipus and Electra complex are main features of this stage. Fixation may lead to narcissism
Oedipus complex In phallic stage?
Electra complex-
Latency psychosexual stage explain ?
Boys focus on mother as primary love object as they desire mother. They think father is rival for mother and want him gone . He fears father will find out and castrate him as punishment so represses his feelings from mother onto father and internalises his moral views do superego develops
Electra complex- girls desire mothers. They realise then they don’t have a penis and develop penis envy. She becomes hostile to mother seeing her as love rival. Affection built for father with penis as primary love object. Feelings to mother eventually resolved as feelings for father eventually changed to desire for baby. She identifies with her mother, internalises her loyal views and superego develops
Starts 6 years before puberty and is the calm stage before puberty occurs. Earlier conflicts are repressed.
Genital stage explain?
Evaluation of psychodynamic approach
Little hans study of 5 year old boy with horse phobia? Feared horses biting him.
Genital stage is puberty to adulthood and has focus on genitals however not as much of a focus as the phallic stage. It’s an attempt to create healthy adult relationships. Fixation in this stage can stop healthy adult relationship forming.
It’s a very deterministic approach saying everybody gets it and if you’re not breastfed long enough you will Smoke so no free will.
Practical application is that psychoanalysis has helped many patients.
It’s largely based on studies of middle class women so hard to generalise to whole pop
You can’t test it with scientific method so can’t falsify.
He especially feared horses with blinkers and black bits around mouth as father had glasses and moustache so displaced this onto horse. He feared castration and study supports the Oedipus complex
Origins of psychology what was psychology previously called?
Who made Cartesian dualism and what is it?
What did Wundt do?
What’s introspection?
Experimental philosophy
Suggests the mind and body are separate entities so therefore brains not the same as the mind. Rene Descartes
He wrote the first book about psychology and opened the first lab in an attempt to try and make it more scientific. He separated psychology from philosophy. He used introspection to try and measure behaviour in a scientific way.
Wundt wanted to see how mind responded to stimuli eg. Listen to metronome and reflect on life. He trained over 100 students to study psychology as a science. Introspection relies on people being able to explain the self and is a subjective method. Wundt used it too look into Human mind / investigate it. P’s were asked to reflect on cognitive processes and describe them in attempt to be scientific which wouldn’t be scientific now. He doesn’t use empirical methods.
Emergence of psychology as a science-
- ) What approach started to see psychology become more scientific?
- ) What does scientific method refer to in psychology?
- ) 3 key features of science?
- ) Cognitive approach can about due to more scientific research. Why did bio approach come about?
Behaviourist. This led to use of highly controlled lab experiments. Behaviourism came about due too other research not being very scientific
Scientific method talks about investigative methods that are objective, replicable and empirically tested
Objectivity, replicability and empirical methods( phenomenon that can be observed and measured and tested scientifically )
Bio approach came about due too improvements in technology providing objective results.
