Approaches AO1 Flashcards
Explain what Wundt meant by introspection
Marking psychology away from its philosophical roots and as more of a practice of science, Wundt created the first psychology lab in 1879.
Wundt used the approach of structuralism, using scientific methods of research to study the structure of perception and sensations. Wundt developed the method of introspection. This was the first systematic, experimental attempt to study conscious awareness. This method divided, and isolated, structures of thought, into basic thoughts, processes and images. Trained participants analysed and observed their thoughts, feelings and sensations in response to different stimuli.
Wundt’s work laid the foundation for psychology as an independent and scientific discipline.
What is one limitation of Wundt’s method of introspection?
One limitation of Wundt’s method of introspection is that it is concerned with subjective experience. Wundt’s study into introspection and the human mind involved participants self-reporting their own thoughts. These aren’t objectively measurable, or provable. Behaviourists, like Skinner and Watson argue that this means introspection can’t help to establish any general laws of human behaviour.
They argue instead that for Psychology to be considered a science, it has to be concerned with accurately measurable phenomena. For example, a rise in the use of fMri scans to investigate stimulus-response links in the brain provides replicable data. This suggests that some of Wundt’s attempts to study the human mind were flawed, and don’t meet the current scientific criteria.
What is a benefit of Wundt’s research?
A benefit of Wundt’s early research into the human mind is that it marked the beginning of Psychology, pushing it away from being considered as just a philosophy. While his method of introspection provided results that lacked replicability, it underpinned the first attempt at scientifically understanding the human mind. This lead to the development of other psychological approaches, I.e., the psychodynamic approach in the early 19th century. Ultimately, this led to a chain reaction, where each following approach in Psychology built off of the limitations of the previous, leading now to modern psychology, where the key approach (biological) is considered scientific.
What are three assumptions of the Behaviourist approach
One assumption of the Behaviourist approach is that humans are born as a blank slate, or ‘tabula rasa’. Here we are written on by our experience with the world.
A second assumption is that behaviour that can be objectively measured and studied. Here all behaviour is seen as acquired and maintained by operant and classical conditioning.
A third assumption is that the basic laws governing processes of learning are the same across both humans and non-humans. This means non-human animals can replace humans in experimental research.
Assumptions of cognitive approach
Assumes that the scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible through making inference on observable behaviour (indirect)
The cognitive approach sees mental processes as being separate from the brain
Cognitive psychologists use computer models and theoretical models to better understand and model cognitive processes, through the use of analogies
Define internal-mental processes
Compare theoretical and computer models
Outline the role of the Schema
Internal mental processes are private and can’t be observed. As such, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, by making inferences about what is occurring in ones mind proportional to their behaviour.
Theoretical and computer models
Theoretical models are abstract, while computer models are concrete.
The information processing approach is an important theoretical model that suggests information flows through the cognitive system in stages: input, storage, and retrieval. Theoretical models eg schema, the idea of Input, storage and retrieval or WMM
The role of schema
Schema are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through experience, that act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system. The older you are, the more detailed your schema. This is beneficial, acting as a mental shortcut, enabling the quick process of information preventing us being overwhelmed by external stimuli. However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
Outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Outline of cognitive neuroscience:
Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field that studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience occurred due to advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, which allow scientists to study the neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory.
Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders. This has led to the development of mind-mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting. One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court.
What is one application of cognitive neuroscience
Application of cognitive neuroscience:
One application of cognitive neuroscience:
One application of this is using cognitive neuroscience to help people with severe paralysis to feel sensation and manipulate an artificial limb. The researchers used their knowledge of cognitive neuroscience to implant electrodes into the brian to stimulate different parts of the brain (motor and sensory areas in the brain). Allowing the subject to feel sensation in the artificial hand through electrical stimulation.
Assumptions of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory assumes that behaviour is also learned from experience, but rather than association just, it is proposed that people learn through the observation and imitation of others.
Social Learning Theory (SLT) acknowledges that classical and operant conditioning are important in learning but extends this by emphasising indirect learning through vicarious reinforcement — where an observer sees a model being rewarded (or punished) for a behaviour, making them more or less likely to imitate that behaviour themselves.
We imitate who we identify with (identification), and this is typically a role model - someone with characteristics we desire (modelling) and is of high status
Describe mediational processes
Mediational processes (what needs to happen for behaviour to be learned from another?):
a. Learning the behaviour:
1. Attention (pay attention to person and behaviour you want to imitate)
2. Retention (help you remember and build an image on what to do to be a good teacher)
b. Performance of behaviour:
3. Motor reproduction (going out and trying to do it, or, the ability to produce the behaviour)
4. Motivation (got to be motivation)
How do Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies support Social Learning Theory?
Bandura (1961) showed that children aged 3–6 imitated aggression after observing adults act aggressively toward a Bobo doll. Those who observed aggression displayed more aggressive acts than those who saw non-aggression. Boys were more aggressive than girls, and same-gender models were more likely to be imitated, supporting identification. In 1963, Bandura found that children were more likely to imitate aggression when it was rewarded rather than punished, demonstrating vicarious reinforcement. These studies provide empirical evidence for the observational learning processes central to SLT.
What are the three main assumptions of the biological approach
Behaviour is shaped by biological structures like the brain, nervous system, and neurochemistry—for example, imbalances in serotonin are linked to disorders like depression.
Psychological traits and behaviours are inherited through genetic transmission, as shown by twin studies and concordance rates.
All thoughts and mental processes have a physical basis in the brain, meaning the mind and brain are inseparable in explaining behaviour.
What is the neurochemical basis of behaviour according to the biological approach?
The biological approach states that human behaviour is largely influenced by neurochemistry, referring to the action of chemicals such as neurotransmitters within the brain. These chemical messengers transmit signals across synapses and are vital for normal functioning. Mental disorders are often linked to neurochemical imbalances; for example, low levels of serotonin are associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), while elevated dopamine activity is implicated in schizophrenia. This supports the idea that behaviour and psychological functioning are biologically rooted and can be studied through objective scientific methods like brain scans and biochemical assays.
How does the biological approach explain behaviour through genetics and epigenetics?
According to the biological approach, psychological traits such as intelligence or aggression are genetically inherited. Twin studies provide supporting evidence by comparing concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. The approach distinguishes between an individual’s genotype (genetic code) and phenotype (observable characteristics), highlighting how the interaction between genes and environment shapes behaviour. Epigenetics further refines this, showing that environmental influences (e.g., diet, pollution) can affect gene expression via epigenetic markers like DNA methylation, without altering the underlying DNA. This reflects the dynamic relationship between heredity and experience in shaping behaviour.
How does the biological approach use evolution to explain human behaviour?
The biological approach draws on Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection, which proposes that genetically determined behaviours that enhance survival and reproductive success are passed on through generations. This process explains the persistence of universal behaviours—such as fear of dangerous stimuli (e.g., fire or deep water), which Seligman called biological preparedness. Traits that offer a selective advantage, such as nurturing instincts or problem-solving skills, are inherited through genetic transmission. Thus, behaviour is seen as the product of adaptive responses that increase an organism’s evolutionary fitness.
The 5 Psychosexual stages
- The 5 psychosexual stages:
- The oral stage is between the ages of 0 and 1, whereby the libido is on the mother’s breast. If fixation occurs, drinking and smoking will occur in adulthood.
- The Anal Stage = ages 1- 3, libido is on the anus and here children learn to respond to societal demands. If fixation occurs, retentive or expulsive personality types occur, mild OCD when older.
- The Phallic Stage = ages of 3 - 5, libido toward opposite sex parent occurs. This is where the Oedipus complex in boys, and Electra complex in girls take place.
\+ The two libido complexes present in the Phallic stage: The Oedipus complex = boys feel guilt over unconscious desires for mothers, and threat from fathers for holding such desire. This could lead to hostility towards fathers. The Electra complex = Girls feel guilt over the unconscious desire for father and threat from mother for holding such desire…. This could lead to hostility toward mothers. Fixation is said to be linked to narcissism and same-gender attraction. - The latency stage = age 6 - puberty. Whereby earlier traumas and conflicts are repressed.
- The Genital stage = 12 + , whereby sexual desire emerges after puberty, and thus ideas of marriage and partners
Psychodynamic defense mechanisms
The Ego is conscious and unconscious, the reality principle, develops after 2 years, and mediates the ID and Super Ego by employing defence mechanisms to reduce intra-psychic conflict:
- Repression is the forcing of distressing memories out of the conscious mind. I.e. forgetting trauma of fav pet dying.
- Denial is the refusing to acknowledge an aspect of reality. I.e. continuing to turn up to work after being sacked.
- Displacement is the transferring of feelings from the true source of distressing emotion, onto a substitute target. I.e. slamming the door after a row with partner.
Id vs Ego vs Superego
The ID is unconscious, primitive, the pleasure principle, selfish, and present at birth, in conflict with the super ego.
The Ego is conscious and unconscious, the reality principle, develops after 2 years, and mediates the ID and Super Ego by employing defence mechanisms to reduce intra-psychic conflict
The Super Ego is unconscious, the moral principle, develops after 5 years, represents moral standards of same-sex parents, and punishes the Ego for wrongs.
Differentiate between consciousness, unconscious and pre-conscious
According to Freud, the mind is divided into three levels of consciousness. The conscious is the part of the mind we are aware of, including thoughts and perceptions. The preconscious lies just beneath awareness and contains thoughts, memories, and ideas that can be accessed, often emerging in dreams or Freudian slips (slips of the tongue). The unconscious is the largest and most influential part of the mind, housing biological drives, repressed memories, and the core elements of the personality (id, ego, superego). Although we are unaware of it, the unconscious powerfully influences behaviour.
three assumptions of Psychodynamic approach
Unconscious mental processes drive behaviour – Much of human behaviour is determined by unconscious motives and conflicts, which we are unaware of but which influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Early childhood experiences shape adult personality – Events and relationships in the first five years are crucial in forming the adult psyche, particularly through psychosexual stages. Unresolved conflicts in these stages can lead to fixations and long-term behavioural issues.
Psychological development is driven by innate instincts, particularly the libido – From birth, humans possess basic drives (e.g. sex drive or libido) which must be managed through defence mechanisms and resolved through the psychosexual stages of development.
Three humanistic approach assumptions
- humans have free-will, and that all influencers of behaviour actively help the individual to determine their own development, within the constraint of other forces.
- It concerns itself with subjective experience.
- It rejects scientific models, as it believes that there can be no established general law of human behaviour.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslows hierarchy of needs:
- Maslow considered that whilst everyone has the desire to, not everyone achieves self-actualisation. Maslow observed that deficiency needs must be attained before one can work towards self-actualisation (growth). The bottommost stage, of his pyramid, is Physiological needs.
Self actualisation:
- Self-actualisation is the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s potential, becoming what one is capable of.
Describe Rogers Concept of Congruence and unconditional positive regard
According to Rogers, congruence occurs when a person’s self-concept closely matches their ideal self. This alignment is essential for self-actualisation, which is the fulfilment of one’s potential. In contrast, incongruence—a mismatch between the self and ideal self—leads to low self-worth and prevents personal growth. Congruence is seen as a key component of psychological well-being.
Rogers’ Concept of Unconditional Positive Regard
Rogers believed that many psychological issues in adulthood stem from childhood experiences, particularly a lack of unconditional positive regard from caregivers. If parents offer conditional love (e.g. “I’ll only love you if…”), children may develop conditions of worth, believing they must meet certain criteria to gain approval. This hinders self-acceptance and contributes to incongruence.
Describe Rogers client centred therapy
Rogers developed client-centred therapy to help individuals achieve greater congruence between their self-concept and ideal self. The therapist provides a non-directive, supportive environment where the client is seen as the expert of their own experience. Effective therapy requires the therapist to demonstrate empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard, helping clients feel understood and valued. This atmosphere encourages clients to explore and resolve their difficulties independently, promoting personal growth and self-actualisation.
