electronegativity
attractive force an atomic nucleus has on electrons within a bond
de/phosphorylation
-/+ of a phosphate
acetylation
+ of C=O
carboxylation
+ of COOH
where does carboxylation usually occur
at the end of a molecule due to its reactive centre
esterification
carboxyl and hydroxyl group join creating a COO group and water
what is esterification used for
altering biomolecule properties as its relatively stable
condenstaion
polymerisation, water released
hydrolysis
depolymerisation, water needed
what is a redox reaction
one molecule oxidised, other reduced
oxidation
loss of electrons
reduction
gain of electrons
in this reaction AH + B <=> A + BH which is
- oxidised/reduced
- the oxidising/reducing agent
- AH is oxidised, B is reduced
- AH is reducing agent, B is oxidising agent
what are the 5 oxidation states of carbon from most reduced -> most oxidised
alkanes -> alcohol -> aldehyde -> carboxylic acid -> CO2
- methyl group
- methylene group
- carbonyl group
- amino group
- amide group
- aldehyde group
- phosphates
- CH3
- CH2
- C=O
- NH2
- CNO
- CHO
- POOOOHH
what molecules store information
DNA, RNA, NADPH/NADH+
what processes generate energy
- citric acid cycle
- glycolysis
- electron transport chain
types of lipids
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids
monosaccharide - example and what it is
- glucose
- single ringed structure
disaccharides - examples and what it is
- sucrose, maltose, lactose
- 2 monosaccharides
polysaccharides - examples and what it is
- glycogen, cellulose
- many monosaccharides
what are polysaccharides used for
storage and rapid energy conversion
1st law of thermodynamics
energy can neither be created or destroyed
2nd law of thermodynamics
no energy conversion is 100% efficient, some become unavailable to do work
entropy
free energy tends towards an unusable state after multiple transformations
change in enthalpy (ΔH)
change in heat content
change in entropy (ΔS)
degree of disorder
equations for change in free energy (ΔG)
- ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
- ΔG = products - reactants
what is an exergonic reaction
free energy of products is less than that of reactants
(ΔG = -ve)
occurs spontaneously
what is an endergonic reaction
free energy of products is more than that of reactants
(ΔG = +ve)
won’t occur spomtaneously
what is the equation for ΔG for any reaction and what do the symbols stand for
ΔG = ΔG’ + RTln([products]/[reactants])
ΔG’ - free energy under standard conditions
R - universal gas constant, -8.3Jkmol-1
T - temp in kelvin
ln - natural log
what is the relation of ΔG to equilibrium
the further towards completion equilibrium is the more free entry is released
ΔG values near 0 are characteristic of what type of reactions
readily reversible ones
what is Keq in a reaction (equation for it)
= [products]/[reactants]
what is the reaction for ΔG when ΔG=0
ΔG*’ = -RTlnKeq
how are unfavourable cellular processes driven
by being coupled to highly favourable processes
why is ATP used as energy currency
ATP breakdown is very -ve and therefore releases a lot of free energy, its very favourable and can be coupled to many processes
why is ATP less stable than ADP and how is the strain removed
- the -ve charges close together in ATP anhydride bonds makes strong electronegative repulsions
- by removing 1+ phosphates
how is ATP regenerated quickly
- hydrolysis using creatine phosphate to ADP
- via ATP + AMP 2ADP
metabolism
all reactions taking place in the body
catabolism
brekadown of complex molecules to simpler ones releasing energy
anabolism
making complex molecules form smaller ones using energy
what types of reactions are useful control points in metabolic pathways and why
- those with large -ΔG values
- theyre not close to equilibrium and therefore the reaction can be controlled
control points in metabolic pathways are controlled via
altering the activity of enzymes involved
