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ABW > BIOL320Z: animal nutrition > Flashcards

BIOL320Z: animal nutrition Flashcards

1
Q

qualitative nutrition

A

physiological/metabolic processes involved in meeting nutrient requirements
- accountable, measurable

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2
Q

quantitative/applied nutrition

A

quantification of nutrient requirements, nutrient evaluation of food and formulation of diets
- without numbers
- behaviour, body condition scoring etc

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3
Q

themes and issues

A
  • what they eat: chemistry, physics, biology
  • faeces: analyse content to see what they eat
  • how many calories needed?
  • type and amount of fibre
  • how animals process food before eating it
  • hunting
  • transporting food
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4
Q

nature of food

A
  • specialised diet : carnivores, herbivores, fructivores, insectivores
  • typically eat what available in their environment: adapted
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5
Q

herbivorous species

A
  • 10 orders
  • 40% of species
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6
Q

frugivores, granivores and nectivorous species

A
  • 5 orders
  • 4% of species
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7
Q

carnivorous species

A
  • 4 orders
  • 12% of species
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8
Q

plankonivorous species

A
  • 2 orders
  • <1% of species
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9
Q

insectivorous species

A
  • 10 orders
  • 33% of species
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10
Q

omnivorous species

A
  • 7 orders
  • 10% species
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11
Q

functions of digestive systems

A
  • ingestion of food
  • transport of food
  • nutrient synthesis by microorganisms
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12
Q

digestion

A

reduction of macromolecules to molecules that can be absorbed by the blood

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13
Q

absorption

A

passage of nutrients to the blood

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14
Q

excretion

A

elimination of indigestible components of diet, bile etc

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15
Q

spiders

A

inject enzymes into their prey to dissolve them and suck up products

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16
Q

birds

A

partially digest and regurgitate food to feed their chicks

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17
Q

obtaining food/feeding methods

A

-non-mammalian vertebrates: undifferentiated teeth (except poisonous snakes)
-birds: adaptation of beaks to food sources

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18
Q

species dependant GI tract adaptations

A
  • stomach type:
    -simple, sacculated to compartments for storage/fermentation
    -some stomachs only for things passing through quickly
    -large intestine : variations in length, volume, compartmentalisation
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19
Q

teeth function

A
  • carnivores, function of tearing/shearing
  • molars, breaking down plant material
  • ungulates, shreading/grinding tougher food
    -muscles, adapted for how they eat
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20
Q

diversity in prehension

A

-lips: horses, sheep, rhinos
-forelimbs: primates, raccoons
-tongue: cows, longer tongue and more specific snout
-snout: pig, anteater, tapir, elephant

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21
Q

common structure of digestive systems

A

-bladder
-caecum (herbivores)
-crop (gizzard, birds)
-esophagus
-gall bladder
-liver
-large intestine
-pancreas
-pyloric appendices
-spiral gut
-small intestine
-stomach

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22
Q

cyclostomes

A

-basic
-long-tube (oesophagus) with connections to the liver and gall bladder

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23
Q

elasmobranchs

A

-clear hindgut
-cloaca ; excretion
-size of area of system relates to importance in digestion
-big pancreas

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24
Q

amphibians

A

-simpler structure but longer small intestine
-big liver compared to other organs
-esophageous, pancreas, gallbladder, large intestine, bladder

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25
Q

bird digestive system

A

-esophageous
-crop
-liver
-stomach
-pancreas
-caecum

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26
Q

herbivores (rabbits)

A

-hindgut fermenter
-a lot more happens after the stomach
-caecum: recevoir of microorganisms

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27
Q

carnivores vs omnivores

A

-carnivore, shorter transit time than omnivores
-carnivores intestine is not as long and complex to prevent bones etc getting stuck

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28
Q

auto enzymatic digesters

A

-digestive enzymes produced and secreted by animal
-non-compartmentalised stomach
-range of feeding strategies

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29
Q

alloenzymatic digesters

A

-digestive enzymes produced by gut microflora
-ruminants: compartmentalised stomach
-non-ruminants
-foregut fermenters
-hindgut fermenters
-feeding strategies : herbivores (majority), omnivores

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30
Q

mono gastric

A

-differences according to feed type
-simple, non-compartmentalised stomach, e.g. dog, human
-sacculated stomach e.g. kangaroo
-simple stomach with enlarged caecum e.g. horse, rabbit, rat

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31
Q

complex, multi-compartmentalised stomach

A

-ruminants
-some differences according to feed type

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32
Q

pre-gastric

A

eat something, before goes into stomach, already broken down

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33
Q

post-gastric fermenters: caecal digesters

A

-capybara: grazers
-rabbit: selective herbivores
-rat, mouse: omnivores

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34
Q

post-gastric fermenters: colonic digesters sacculated

A

-elephant, horse, zebra: grazers
-new world monkeys: folivores
-pig, human: omnivores

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35
Q

post-gastric fermenters: colonic digesters unsacculated

A

-panda: herbivores
-dog, cat: carnivores

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36
Q

folivore

A

eats leaves

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37
Q

post-gastric fermenters

A

happens after animal has processed/broken down most food but not processed the energy
-foregut digesters
-amylase in saliva breaks down starch to release sugar

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38
Q

examples

pre gastric fermenters ruminants

A

-cattle, sheep: grazing, herbivores
-deer, antelope (camel): selective herbivores including folivores and frugivores

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39
Q

pre gastric fermenters non ruminants

A

-colobine monkey, hamster, vole: selective herbivores
-kangaroo, hippo: grazing and selective herbivores
-hoatzin: folivore

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40
Q

ruminants

A

-grass/roughage eaters:
-eat anything
-don’t spend loads of energy looking for specific food
-eat 3 times a day
-concentrate selectors: eating all the time
-intermediate: 5-7 times a day

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41
Q

reticule-rumen

A

-fermentation
-absorption of SCFAs via papillae

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42
Q

SCFAs

A

short chain fatty acids

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43
Q

papillae

A

-cabbage looking structure
-changes with age/season
-increases rumens surface area and amount it can absorb

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44
Q

VFA

A

volatile fatty acids

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45
Q

reticulum

A

-traps indigestible objects from entering stomach
-used in mineral supplementation

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46
Q

omasum

A

-absorbs water
-acts as a sieve allowing small particles to pass into abomasum

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47
Q

abomasum

A

‘true stomach’

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48
Q

size of compartment % changes with age : reticulum

A

-newborn reticulum: 30%
-10-12 week reticulum: 67%
-adult reticulum: 5%

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49
Q

size of compartment % changes with age : rumen

A

newborn: 30%
10-12 weeks: 67%
adult: 80%

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50
Q

size of compartment % changes with age : omasum

A

newborn: 70%
10-12 weeks: 33%
adult: 7-8%

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51
Q

size of compartment % changes with age : abomasum

A

newborn: 70%
10-12 weeks: 33%
adult: 8-9%

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52
Q

interactions: digestion time and energy

A

-use energy to get food and eat
-start to get energy back from eating
-maximum energy we are going to get from that food
-come to point where animal decides to keep eating and then keep digesting
-keep energy high

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53
Q

interactions: food quality

A

-get more energy from high quality food
-not always possible for animal to get high quality food
-takes longer to digest low quality food
-so more energy

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54
Q

kangaroo rat

A

-slimmer
-spend more time looking for high quality food they can digest quick
-high metabolism

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55
Q

auto enzymatic digestion (hydrolytic/host) process

A

-can start breaking down carbs in mouth (amylase)
-dietary fibre
-doesn’t get digested, excreted along to help with bowel movements
-proteases secreted by pancreas
-gastric juice
-proteases, lipases, amylases
-some single AAs absorbed immediately, others take longer

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56
Q

dietary sources of carbohydrate

A

-rapidly fermented; sugars, starch, fructo-oligosaccharides
-slowly fermented: ‘fibre’-cellulose, hemicellulose

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57
Q

end products of carb fermentation

A

-SCFAs: acetic (C2), propionic (C3), butyric (C4)
-gases: CO2, H2 and CH4 (~10% gross energy in ruminants)
-heat of fermentation (~10% GE in ruminants)

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58
Q

nutrient absorption from GI tract

A

-simple diffusion: lipid molecules e.g. SCFAs
-facilitated diffusion: GLUT5 and GLUT2
-active transport of glucose and AAs
-lipid absorption as chylomicrons

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59
Q

cecal dysbiosis

A

refers to the disruption of the delicate balance of organisms within the rabbits digestive tract

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60
Q

caecotrophs

A

a type of soft faecal pellet which some animals consume

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61
Q

caecal vs ruminant digestion

A

-rodents recycle faeces (coprophagy)
-water conservation
-overnight round pellets (cecotrophs)
-communication: pheromones
-equids are caecal digesters

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62
Q

caecal vs ruminant digesters : evolutionary advantage

A

-when food has high fibre content, caecal digesters increase throughput where vegetation is unlimited, ruminants do not
-under favourable conditions, caecal digestion is 70% as efficient as rumination

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63
Q

common problems in captivity - causes

A

-Langurs: digestive upset and malnutrition
-Lemurs: hind-gut digestion, prone to obesity
-Giraffes: poor body condition
-Elephants, rhinos, tapirs: obesity

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64
Q

Nutrition

A

-describes the quality of diet and level of nutritional status
-essential nutrients are those that become important under defined conditions e.g
-growth
-reproduction
-migration
hibernation
-requirements are for nutrients not for foods

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65
Q

nutrients

A

-energy
-protein
-micronutrients
-essential minerals
-vitamins

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66
Q

physiological processes

A

-maintenance
-growth
-lactation
-reproduction
-activity

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67
Q

requirements for what?

A

-optimal nutrition for cows producing optimal yield of milk
-dairy cows/farms
-animals in the wild/ones we don’t know well may have ‘odd’ nutrient requirements
-as they have evolved/adapted to their wild environment

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68
Q

macro-nutrients

A

-energy
-CHO or fat
-EFAs
-protein
-total protein (crude protein)
-EAAs
-need some in certain proportions

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69
Q

energy

A

-an animal will require a given amount of energy per day
-if we don’t have certain nutrients, body will balance it by taking something from storage
-hibernating, need less energy

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70
Q

energy requirements

A

-gender differences
-male birds: displays etc, females more systems?
-size and activity level
-males fighting
-stage of lifecycle
-growing, pregnant, lactating, brooding
-lifestyle
-activity levels, grazing, hunting, migrating, hibernating etc

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71
Q

energy from food

A

-energy in the solid, not the water
-derive more energy from fats than carbs
-amount of food needed to supply energy will depend on;
-water content
-CHO vs Fat
-fibre content
-apetite
-energy content of food (MJ/Kg)
-digestible energy (DE)
-metabolisable energy (ME)

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72
Q

net for maintenance

A

amount of energy for an animal that is not eating (fasting)

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73
Q

measuring ME

A

-means of collecting
-urine
-combustible gases in ruminants
-apparent ME
-birds
-don’t have energy loss in urine so easier to measure

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74
Q

indirect calorimetry

A

-measurement of respiratory exchange
-most ways animal gets energy is by oxidising nutrients
-happens in the cells
-oxygen is needed to breaks things down
-sugars can be broken down anaerobically
-W.75 = faster metabolism

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75
Q

effects of environment on heat production

A

-temperature, rain, humidity, speed (evaporative heat losses)
-requirements in sheltered v non-sheltered
environments
-effects of environmental temperature

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76
Q

farming

A

-energy used dependant on activity
-Kilo= 1,000 time less than Mega
-sheep: walking uses 5 times more energy than changing positions
-most sheep behave the same but have different energy requirements

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77
Q

protein function

A

-carnivorous land animals, fish and marine vertebrates require a high proportion of protein: energy in diet
-crude protein measured by weight
-during lactation, require more protein
-turn nitrogen into protein
-protein requirements ; meet needs for EAAs and NEAAs

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78
Q

essential AAs

A

-vital for tissue repletion, growth and development
-essentials are those that can’t be synthesised
-20 AAs for protein
9-12 EAAs
-must be provided in diet

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79
Q

limiting amino acid

A

-dairy cows need protein to produce milk
-more methionine, more protein produced in the
milk
-eventually plateaus and has no more increased
effect
-point where if we eat more protein we aren’t going to keep growing or producing cells

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80
Q

apparent digestibility of protein

A

faecal digestibility

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81
Q

true digestibility of protein

A

-measured at terminal ileum
-all protein digestion and absorption takes place

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82
Q

Lipids

A

-essential for energy and health
-EFAs important for cell membranes, immunity and general health
omega 3 and 6 fatty acids are found in marine diets and food (omega 3 especially in fish oils)

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83
Q

micronutrients - minerals

A

-requirements vary
-macro-minerals mg-g/day
-micro-minerals ng-mg/day
-Na problem for herbivores
-plants very low in Na

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84
Q

vitamins

A

-water soluble, not accumulated in the body
fat soluble accumulated in fatty muscle
-supplement things into diet to see when diseases arise/go away
-not jut what is eaten but how it is absorbed
-extra requirements for animals in different life stages
-higher need of folic acid in pregnancy
-multivitamins typically given to zoo animals

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85
Q

iron

A

-not fully absorbed when consuming it
-needs to be in small particles to be absorbed
-iron from meat ready to be absorbed into body and start working

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86
Q

gout

A

-sometimes excess protein can be bad
-accumulation of biproducts of protein typically around the feet

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87
Q

vitamin E pathologies

A

-EDM: equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy
-eNAD: equine neuroaxonal dystrophy
-nervous system
-problems can be in more than 1 system
-fertility/reproductive problems
-weight problems
-necrosis
-immunosuppresion

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88
Q

Vitamin A

A

-yellow/orange foods
-deficiany: skin forms like scales

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89
Q

water

A

-‘free’ and ‘bound’ water
-variability in feeds
-occurence in animal/requirements
-influences on diet formulation

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90
Q

what goes in

chemical composition of pet feed

A

-labels on food
-what goes in
-complete means food has everything they need
-‘meat’ is used as a generic term, could also include parts of lungs/other organs and offal
-offal= high in nutrients
-chemical composition doesn’t always relate to what is absorbed by the body

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91
Q

crude fibre (CF)

A

-cell wall constituents
-cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin
-ruminants
-a proportion of CF is digested by foregut fermentation
-dependant on degree of lignification
-non-ruminants
-limited amount of CF digested
-short exposure to fermentation in rear-gut

92
Q

CF : errors

A
  • acid and base solubilise some true fibre
    -CF underestimates ‘true’ fibre
    -does not account precisely for contributions of fore/hind gut fermentation
93
Q

Nitrogen Free extract (NFE)

A

approximates non-structural content (starch and sugars)
-determined by difference between total dry matter and the sum if the other four chemical components

94
Q

pet food quality

A
  • packaging: consistent, fresh, low compliant
    -standards
    -communication
    -ethical
    -fit for purpose
    -function: taste, appearance, aroma, texture
95
Q

pet food quality: what do you expect as the owner?

A

-gives you what you need
-meets expectations
-fit for purpose
-branding
-trust
-brand credibility
-e.g. vet backed?
-appealing

96
Q

pet food : ethics

A

-legal requirements
-prevent smuggling unfit/unsafe foods
-ethics
-fair trade
-organic
-local
-avoid meat
-carbon emissions
-packaging
-avoid waste

97
Q

pet food : safety

A

-absence of toxins
-hard to measure, no single test to pick them all up
-dont always have resources to measure them all
-cost, time, environment

98
Q

pet food : allergies

A

-increaing issue in pets
-in human food, companies have to declare typical allergens
-foods become more expensive due to extra checks

99
Q

pet food : feel good factor

A

-know when something is right for you
-instincts
-important for animals, first thing they know when they eat something

100
Q

feed safety : CDC advice

A
  • do not feed pet raw diet
  • consists of foods such as meat, poultry, milk and eggs that have not been cooked or treated to remove harmful germs
    -these food items can carry harmful bacteria including salmonella and campylobacter
101
Q

chemical toxicants

A

-sometimes only find out something is toxic when it is too late
-chives etc toxic to animals
-bread dough toxic to dogs
dark chocolate more fatal to dogs than other chocolates
-toxicants that are worse seem to be mycotoxins

102
Q

mycotoxins

A

-usually produced by fungi and moulds
-detrimental In small quantities to many organs in animal
-animal without mycotoxins grow 50-6-% more than one with them
-malformation of reproductive system
-liver damage

103
Q

salmonela

A

-some zoonotic
-could be infecting household
-share a microbiome with your pets
-especially risk of zoonotic gastrointestinal disease
-humans in US getting salmonella
-linked to pets
-pig ear treats infected with salmonella

104
Q

dog nutrient requirements

A

-careful balance of calcium/phosphorus and sufficient vitamin D for strong bones and healthy teeth
-fats and oils are a source if energy which is important for active and large dogs
-protein to maintain body muscles

105
Q

cat nutrient requirements

A

-almost twice as much protein as a dog
-vitamin A within very precise limits: too much liver can be harmful
-wrong balance of EFAs -> no shine on coat
-Taurine (vitamin like) essential to prevent eye and heart disease

106
Q

small rodents nutrient requirements

A

-each type has its own very specific requirements
-hamster needs high protein (meat)
-dwarf rabbit is strictly herbivorous
-guinea pigs : need vitamin C

107
Q

least cost formulation

A

-optimum nutrition, optimum cost
-provides most economical combination of available ingredients considering restriction for each one
-maximise the use of available ingredients
-restrictions
-cats, vit A restricted to particular value which is less than level of toxicity

108
Q

formulation : optimisation

A

-least cost feed formulation
-nutritionally complete
-has a minimum ingredient cost
-completed using linear programming software
-used by feed mills/manufacturers

109
Q

catfish

A

-too much cottonseed meal is toxic, restricted to 10% due to gossypol content
-xanthophyll content restricted due to it using yellow discolouration at high concentrations

110
Q

free choice feeding

A

-food always available
-many do best in this system
-works best for dry food and low energy levels e.g. grazers (hay)

111
Q

meal-feed feeding

A

-food offered one or more times a day
-can eat all if animal wants
a) one meal a day, left-overs removed
b) more daily meals, total amount divided and fed in parts
c)restricted feed, food offered at Lowe amount than what animal would if free to do so

112
Q

ration design : ad libitum

A

give extra food, animal decides how much they need

113
Q

key questions

A

-all animals in enclosure same species, do we treat them all the same?
-seperate
-dominant/subordinate
-juvenile/adult
-effectiveness
-body condition, behaviour, health

114
Q

nutrients that affect health

A

-macronutrients
-carbs, protein, fat, water
-micronutrients
-vitamins, electrolytes (minerals), trace elements

115
Q

under nutrition

A

-weight loss/growth retardation
-starvation
-affected by macronutrients

116
Q

over nutrition

A

-excess weight gain
-adiposity
-obesity
-affected by macronutrients

117
Q

hidden hunger

A

-sub-clinical
-clinical deficiencies
-deficiency diseases
-long term
-affected by micronutrients

118
Q

macronutrient balance

A

-protein, carbs, fats
-use some of them straight away
-others stored in different parts of the body or used for different systems
-synthesise carbs from protein/lipid if needed and vice versa

119
Q

heat regulation

A

-colder the environment, the more heat and therefore energy is needed
-dogs pant to dissipate heat

120
Q

effect of temperature

A

-eat more food in cold environments to make up for loss of energy through heat production
-hot environment, food intake low

121
Q

temperature regulation - Adaptation

A

-fat in hump : need energy to heat up/cool down
-insulated coat: heat can’t get in
-long guts to recover more water
-light colour to reflect heat

122
Q

Peri-prandial

A

water intake at same time as food intake

123
Q

ether extract (EE)- fat/oil

A

-ether is evaporated and remaining DM is called EE
-fats are soluble in ether -> EE is equivalent to fat or oil
-assumes everything solubilised in ether is fat, but not always the case
-so value might not be related to digestible fat

124
Q

hungry, thirsty or bored?

A

-circa 70%animals fluid intake is peri-prandial
-succulent diets: no fluid intake is needed
-increase of dry diet, issues with hydration
-lots of people thirsty, don’t drink enough water or have enough water in their diet
-water not always considered a nutrient, but very important

125
Q

primary malnutrition

A

-energy or protein-energy undernutrition
-starvation
-dietary deficiency of a specific nutrient
-vitamin or mineral deficiency

126
Q

secondary malnutrition

A

-adequate nutrients present
-apetite depressed
-absorption/utilisation disorders
-e.g. sometimes protein is in diet, but animal isn’t eating efficiently
-increased nutrient demand to meet physiological needs
-pregnancy and lactation
-immune response/disease

127
Q

starvation process : 1st priority

A

-prolonged fasting state
-not eating for long time
-priority: maintain glucose supply to the brain
-body starts using protein to make glucose
-gluconeogenic substrates are limited
-amino acids can only be derived from he breakdown of amino acids during fasting
-protein come from muscles
-start breaking down muscle tissue
->emancipation

128
Q

starvation process : 2nd priority

A

-preserve protein
-shift in fuel use from glucose to fatty acids and ketone bodies

129
Q

ketone body

A

byproducts of fat breakdown, acetone/alcohol like smell

130
Q

protein malnutrition

A

-adequate energy, inadequate protein
-insufficient total protein
-serve deficiency in one or more EAA
-characterised by:
-poor growth
-low plasma protein
-muscle wastig
-oedema
-increased susceptibility to infection

131
Q

illegal capture, giraffe

diet formulation

A

-animals captured/kept illegal generally quite unwell
-poor or no diet
-malnourised
-giraffe
-specific vit D remuements
-low carb diet
-hoof issues, symptom of over nutrition: obesity

132
Q

Zebra

A

-typically treated like horses
-but environment and evolution very different
-wet soil/lutious grass is bad
-used to dry environments and grasses
-lower quality foods, eat according to body needs

133
Q

carnivores

A

-tendency to over feed
-overweight or obese
-low activity levels
-used to roaming, hunting, defending
-behaviour not okay in zoos/homes
-feed few times per week
-a lot of high quality food leads to issues (gout?)

134
Q

goldfish

A

-substrate
-bigger rocks/pebbles, different interaction than that of small substrate
-smaller rocks, more interaction with nutrients and foraging

135
Q

food provision

A

-interaction between animal and public
-throw food into enclosure, natural behaviours change - begin to expect food
-reaction to keepers/people who feed them
-anxiety at feeding time
-begging behaviour
-time of day/how many times a dat feeding
-how much time keepers have

136
Q

feeding for reproduction

A

-pre-mating
-preparation
-energy goes into sexual ornamentation or courtship behaviours
-fighting, dominance etc
-nutrition of the neonate
-nutrition of the new mother: recovery & support
-nutrition of growing animal

137
Q

dairy cows

A

-mastitis: links to malnutrition
-hoof problems : lack of protein

138
Q

ewes

A

-body condition correlates with ovulation rate
-higher condition score, higher ovulation rate

139
Q

body condition and fertility

A

-linked with hormones
-elephant
-dominant females get most of the food
-end up being the only ones reproducing

140
Q

preparation for mating

A

-grooming
-more nutrients, better coat
-e.g. alpha male
-chickens: dominant cockerel = successful
-period of over-eating -> obesity
-sperm quality/sexual drive
-so, feed them well, but leave them slightly hungry

141
Q

milk composition

A

-in wild, don’t always have enough milk for all young, so only feed one or two
-can’t substitute milk of one animal with milk from another

142
Q

energy

ATP

A

-adenosine triphosphate
-the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level
-produced via electron transport chain

143
Q

protein and AA metabolism

A

-protein synthesis
-constituent AAs from digestion of protein
-cannot store AAs by themselves
-bigger muscle mass when nutrition is good
-when nutrition is bad, muscles reduced by using
AAs for energy
-essential AAs vary between several species

144
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

-to get glucose
-fasted:
-haven’t had carbs/fats
-need to get energy from skeleton of AAs
-in mono gastric omnivores

145
Q

ketogenesis

A

-monogastrics
-starvation
-mobilization of lipid
-ruminants
-demand for glucose exceeds supply
-mobilisation of lipid stores
-to get fats/energy from fats
-recruit energy from fat storage

146
Q

animal obesity

A

-particularly in captivity
-gaining/losing weight is a natural cycle in wild animals
-too much fat :problem
-feeding and genetics
-body condition score

147
Q

glucose

GI curves

A

-glucose in blood stream after animal has been fed
-change diet, change amount of sugars going into the body

148
Q

excessive carbs in ruminants

A

-rot foot
-glucosuria
-sugar in urine symptom
-diabetes
-laminitis
-inflamation of the laminae of the foot
-excessive production of SFAs
-sugar converted into fats with insulin

149
Q

hypoxia

A

-levles of low oxygen in body tissues leading to inability to maintain adequate homeostasis

150
Q

glycemic control

A

-regulation of blood glucose
-pancreatic hormones
-insulin B cells
glucagon a cells

151
Q

B cells

A

-gluconase
-glucose uptake at high blood glucose levels
-B cells responds to high blood glucose

152
Q

liver/CHO

hepatic glucokinase

A

rapid uptake of glucose by liver after high CHO meal

153
Q

glucokinase activity

A

activity regulated mainly by CHO intake and insulin in mammals (exception cats; low hepatic activity)

154
Q

limits to intake

A

-availability/types of feeds
-size of digestive tract
-rate of digestion, absorption or metabolism of nutrients
-rate of passage through gut and excretion of indigestible material

155
Q

short-term intake regulation

A

-within meal-meal (feed occasion) basis
-determines quantity/quality of food eaten during single meals and over a period of days

156
Q

long-term intake regulation

A

-from days to weeks
-modulates sensitivity of short-term regulation
-> maintenance of energy balance/weight in long term

157
Q

balance of 2 systems

A

-hypothalamus monitors the periphery for signals altering central circuits to energy stores/balance
->long-term control
-brainstem receives oral and gastrointestinal/metabolic information
->short-term control

158
Q

role of leptin

A

-discovered in 1950’s
-mice; homozygous mutant for single leptin gene
-produced mainly in white adipose tissue
-key in feedback control of food intake
-neuropeptide Y suppression
-first link between peripheral blood supply and CNS that regulates long-term energy balance

159
Q

stock enhancement

A

-overfishing, coastal development and touring activities endanger wild fish stocks
-hatcheries : hatch eggs in a controlled environment and release them

160
Q

polyculture

A

-complex recreation of ecosystems
-multiple species cultured together
-typically large carnivores

161
Q

aquaculture

A

-typically refers to food production
-alligators, frogs, soft-shelled turtles also included
-production of aquatic animals and plants under controlled conditions

162
Q

human food chain

why aquaculture ?

A

-population estimated to increase to nearly 10 billion by 2050
-we will need 60% more food
-never been more efficient at producing food
-need protein more rapidly than overall food volume
-ample scope to use ocean for food production
-growing 8-9% per year

163
Q

sustainability of aquaculture

A

-1/2 of seafood we eat comes from aquaculture
-in many ways, more sustainable than terrestrial farming
-not environmental benign, all food production has some impact on the environment
-about reducing the degree of impact

164
Q

fish GI tract

A

-higher on trophic level, shorter intestine
-carnivorous
-some hindgut fermenters
-not as developed as terrestrial ones
-some gastric, no stomach
-cyprinidae family
-sometimes extended area of the intestine

165
Q

pyloric caeca

A

pyloric region of the stomach, increases surface area for digestion

166
Q

epibranchial structures

A

extensions of gills for trapping microorganisms like plankton

167
Q

what do proteins contain

fish - proteins

A

-contian C, H, O, N
-most contain 16% N
-not just about level but correct balance of AAs
-don’t want protein to be used as energy but transferred into AAs

168
Q

fish - lipids and fatty acids

A

-contain C, H, O
-most fish require 7-25% dietary lipid
-cheap source of energy
-very easy to digest
-important: phospholipids, lipoproteins, cholesterol
-important for cell membranes

169
Q

EFAs

A

-essential fatty acids
-omega 3 : brain and cardiovascular development
-marine fish require n-3 HUFA for optimal growth and health
-mainly EPA and DHA
-microalgae only species to produce EPA + DHA -
-freshwater fish don’t need LC HUFA, instead need carbon n-3 fatty acid ALA

170
Q

carbohydrates CHO

A

-no specific requirements
-following digestion & absorption can be used to meet immediate energy needs
-fish generally not good at utilising carbs

171
Q

stats

max inclusion CHO

A

-salmonoids: 15-25%
-shrimp: 20-40%
-omnivores: 50%

172
Q

effects of too much energy

energy: fish

A

-require less energy relative to protein than terrestrial animals
-carbs, least expensive source
-too much energy: fatty fish, fatty liver, reduced feed intake, reduced growth rates
-insufficient energy: reduced growth, uneconomical use of protein

173
Q

equation

feed conversion

A

-feed intake ÷ weight gain
-any fed animal
-feed amount for given unit of biomass
-main operational cost = food

174
Q

juvenile/larval feeding

A

-tuna : tigers of the sea, often fed raw whole fish
-pelleting machines used to crush things together
-often uses premixes of vitamins and minerals
-sometimes pigments e.g. carotenoids for salmon colour

175
Q

stats

fish meal and fish oil

A

-over 25% captured fish are used for non-food products, majority of which produce fishmeal and fish oil
-make up raw materials in animal feed
-bi products: sand eel, no human desire to consumee so goes into fishmeal
-60% fishmeal is used in aquaculture
-225g fishmeal comes from 1Kg of fish

176
Q

catfish protein requirements

A

28-44%

177
Q

tilapia protein requirements

A

26-40%

177
Q

carp protein requirements

A

23-45%

178
Q

salmon protein requirements

A

40-48%

179
Q

European sea bass protein requirements

A

45-60%

180
Q

tuna protein requirements

A

~65%+??
-very large fish, not sure on nutrient requirements

181
Q

enterocytes

A

-barrier function
-absorption of nutrients
-interact with development of immunity and contents of gut ; pathogens, antigens etc
-lifespan 48-72 hrs
-proliferate through cell emission
-microscopic
-not present prominently when not needed

182
Q

absorptive cells

A

-hair structures
-analyse nutrient content
-transport system
-linked to circulatory system

183
Q

goblet cells

A

-produce mucus
-thicker closer to cells
-barrier function
-communication system
-thick mucus = high health status

183
Q

metabolomics

A

pick up things that have been metabolised

184
Q

in relation to microbiome and enterocytes

colostrum

A

-proteins that trigger application of enterocytes in new-born
-body learns of ‘friendly’ and ‘unfriendly’ proteins

185
Q

gut microflora

A

-stable microflora protects against infection and modulates the immune system
-medium is sea of mucus where cells are suspended
-microflora is the defence
-friendly bacteria needed for antigens
-areas of infection, little to no absorption

186
Q

mammals microbiome

A

-mothers transfer bacteria from mouth by licking young
-young pick up vaginal microflora during natural birth
-pick up bacteria from the environment
-microflora starts getting more variable and complex, starts to regulate

186
Q

is excessive hygiene bad? Avians

A

-in ovo, GI tract is sterile
-at hatch, chicks exposed to microflora
-in hatcheries, lot of infection in chicks due to living in excessively sterilised environments
-immunocompromised
-fail to establish normal microflora
-infected by salmonella

187
Q

establishing gut microflora in chicks

A

-people working in hen houses carriers of pests and disease
-disease carried on faeces of chicks
-wanted to know if bacteria in good faeces is good
-chicks sprayed with bacteria from good faeces did better

187
Q

competitive exclusion

A

-competing for space and nutrient
-barrier function: protects against invasion of pathogens

188
Q

unbalances of microflora

A

-antibiotics effect microflora
-stress
-some diets unbalance the system
-horses etc, a lot of carbs produces more acid, unbalances microflora

189
Q

starch

hinfgut fermenters e.g. horses

A

-if starch intake exceeds capacity of stomach and SI, can’t digest and absorb it
-too much starch reaches caecum
-first stage of fermentation is bypassed
-lactic acid production increases
-pH lowers
-lactic acid bacteria increase
-fibrolytic bacteria decrease

189
Q

mastitis in cows

A

-lactating cows
-infection of the teat
-unhealthy microflora

189
Q

probiotic definition

A

-viable, non-pathogenic microorganisms which, when ingested, exert a positive influence on host health/physiology
-like a microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects host animal by improving microbial balance

190
Q

disruption of microbial balance in the gut

A

-increased acidity irritates gut lining and bacterial endotoxins enter the bloodstream
-endotoxaemia and circulatory problems
-laminitis

190
Q

prebiotic definition

A

-non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially effects host by selectively stimulating growth of bacteria species resident in caecum/colon
-not live
-benefit bacteria that we want to promote

190
Q

symbiotic definition

A

combination of a probiotic and a prebiotic that selectively stimulates its growth and aids colonisation of the gut

191
Q

alternatives to AGPs s

A

-antibiotic growth promoters
-presupposes that they will promote animal performance
-small amount of antibiotic helps animal to grow because it changed microflora in they way they metabolise
-banned in Europe as causes obesity

191
Q

metabolic effects

A

-SCFA production
-production of bacteriocins
-ezyme production: metabolism of host nutrients
-bile salt deconjugation
-detoxification (potential carcinogens)
-iron sequestration

191
Q

existing effects of probiotics

A

-contribute to balanced gut microflora
-displacement of pathogenic flora
colonisation resistance

191
Q

probiotics in pregnant and lactating mammals

A

-hotmone changes
-boost in seretonin for nesting and preparing for delivery
-massive increase In cortisol during delivery
-microflora picks up on this stress
-causes sickness, diarrhoea, depression after delivery

192
Q

glycogen

piglets

A

-higher glycogen levels help with survival in first hrs after birth
-nutrition prioritised for mothers and young
-higher immune system when fed fermented foods

192
Q

companion origins

A

-wild cats/dogs hang around people and eat leftovers
-diet and nutritional needs change
-dogs genetics evolved with domestication in relation to what humans were eating

193
Q

dogs: amylase

A

-dogs become used to eating amylase from being around humans
-can cope with eating starches better than wild counterparts

194
Q

dog food formats

A

-dry food/kibble cheaper than wet food
-growing trend in natural treats
-bones, hides, dried meats
-cats; treats a lot smaller percentage than seen in dogs

195
Q

retail sales and market value 2012

A

-hard to predict
-seen increase in people buying food for garden birds
-cat food market value higher than dogs

196
Q

nutrition attitudes

A

-75% people look for food that has an additional benefit
-51% concerned about pets getting the right nutrients
-21% find it difficult to tell if pet is obese

197
Q

treats…

A

-50% people prefer to buy treats with added health benefits
-14% would like to see more variety in cat treats
-treats are designed for pet satisfaction

198
Q

specialist products

A

-activity, age, lifestyle etc
-foods with different speeds if energy release
-drinks for cats, cater to inability to tolerate larg volumes of milk

199
Q

nutritional claim

A

-any claim that states, suggests or implies that a feed has particular beneficial nutritional properties due to;
a) energy (calorific value)
b) nutrients or other substances it contains, contains in reduced/increased proportions, or
c) does not contain

200
Q

PARNUT

A

-dietetic food
-feed intended for particular nutritional purposes
-tested to work
-prescribed/reccomended for obesity et
-not medicated
-high prices

201
Q

functional claims

A

-scientific evidence substantiated by research
-significant contribution towards promotion of health and reduced disease risk e.g. joint diseases
-balance/composition of fatty acids e.g. proven to ave effect, shiny coat in cats

202
Q

nutrient function claims

A

-at accurate level for given effect
-calcium for strong bones and teeth
-vitamin E protects fat in body tissues from oxidation

203
Q

enhanced function claims

A

-contains antioxidants to support immune system
-contains chicory to improve growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut b

204
Q

new ethics in animal food

A

-organic
-no GM (genetic modification)
-no animal products
-locally produced/local businesses

205
Q

what is food made of?

A

-chemicals
-plants, animals and microbes
-carbs, fats and proteins to provide energy, growth, maintenance and survival
-vitmains and minerals in small amounts in order for body to function
-fibre for digestion

206
Q

how does food spoil?

A

-time dependant
-enzyme action
-natural enzymes
-breakdown components
->spoilage
-microbial action, bacteria and fungi, some beneficial, some not
-oxidation, oxygen in air -> rancid

207
Q

myths

A

independent companies bringing other bigger brands down by spreading false information
-not always to be trusted: agenda and ignorance

208
Q

product labelling

A

-tells you product function
-backed up by trials and research
-legal nutritional claims
-recommended portion sizes
-no artificial colors/flavourings

208
Q

affordability

A

-growing trend of people buying value food over what they thinks but
-some pet foods more expensive than human foods
-varied and nutritious foods need to be;
-available
-affordable

209
Q

sensory analysis of pet food

A

-aroma
-texture
-flavour
-can be tested

210
Q

two bowl method

A

-choice of 2 foods
-set length
-measures;
a) intake ration
b) consumption ratio
c) first choice
d) preference
e) first approach

211
Q

two bowl method variations

A

number of pet participants
environment
feeding length
normal diet
breed
region
electronic systems

212
Q

two bowl method problems

A

mostly for dogs
satiety/huner
over-eating
anticipated withdrawal
voracious/unselective
individual variation
lateral bias

213
Q

cat behaviour during feeding

A

-bowl licking, stretching; satisfied by meal
-latency time; low motivation to eat
-change of posture, head up; low interest in meal
-food sniffing; hesitant to eat

214
Q

cognitive palatability assessment

A

-train animal to tell you what they prefer
-electrophysiology: measure what happens to animal physiological
-RFID; electronic tags you can trace back

ABW (10 decks)

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