MBIO317Z

Question 1

Tinbergen’s questions

Answer 1

-causation (e.g.hormones) and development (e.g.learning) = proximate, how questions?
-function (e.g.fitness) and evolution (e.g.fossils) = ultimate, why questions?

Question 2

function

Answer 2

the fitness value of a behaviour

Question 3

fitness

Answer 3

relative number of genes contributed to the next generation

Question 4

natural selection (NS)

Answer 4

-differential survival of alternative alleles
-responsible for how animals look (morphology) and how they work (physiology)

Question 5

drosophila, genes & behaviour

Answer 5

-normally mate for 20 minutes
-mating time regulated by mechanoreceptors in the males penis
-add a mutation that produces different amounts of receptors
-fewer: don’t know when to stop mating
-too many: don’t mate for long enough

Question 6

garter snakes, genes & behaviour

Answer 6

-coastal and inland snake populations feed on different prey
-coastal snakes eat slugs, inland snakes refuse them
-some differences seen in lab reared snakes

Question 7

‘group selection’ : proposed mechanism

Answer 7

-works at group level not individual
-groups of unselfish individuals do better than groups of selfish individuals

Question 8

inclusive fitness

Answer 8

number of genes contributed to the next generation

Question 9

ecology

Answer 9

-normal biotic and abiotic factors
-usefullness of many traits is frequency dependant

Question 10

behavioural ecology

Answer 10

-the study of how behavioural traits maximise fitness
-behaviour
-ecology
-evolution

Question 11

heterotrophs

Answer 11

energy and nutrients from consuming other organisms

Question 12

optimal foragers should;

Answer 12

-maximise energy intake
-minimise fluctuations on energy intake
-maximise energy intake during certain periods

Question 13

sticklebacks

Answer 13

-feed them neomysis in lab
-large sticklebacks eat large neomysis
-optimal prey size half the size of the inside of predators mouth

Question 14

efficient foragers must ‘make decisions’

Answer 14

1. What type of food to eat
2. Where & how long to search for food
3. What type of search path to use
4. How to minimise risk

Question 15

equation

A model of prey selection

Answer 15

-profitability = E ÷ H
where E = energy gained
and H = handling time

Question 16

prey selection

Answer 16

efficient foragers chose they prey that gives the highest ratio of ;
Profit (energy) : Effort (handling time)

Question 17

Marine iguana

Answer 17

-different foraging strategy dependent on body size
-inter-tidal : <1.2 Kg
-small animal cools faster due to smaller surface
area
-not very good swimmers so smaller individuals
use more energy swimming
-sub-tidal : <1.8Kg
-both : 1.2-1.8Kg

Question 18

what type of search pattern to use

Answer 18

-straight line good to cover a lot of ground quickly
-hostile environment
-might miss resources
-pattern with lots of turns may allow well known areas to be exploited better

Question 19

painted turtles

Answer 19

-riverline catchments
-move between different streams over land
-mostly moving in straight line
-when in new river, move more randomly

Question 20

minimise risks : sand goby

Answer 20

-prey on small crustaceans, preyed on by larger fish (cod)
-starved goby foraged more than fed one
-chemical info important, forage less when predator present
-use hinger and predator info together
-hungry animals take more risks

Question 21

bee waggle dance

Answer 21

-transfer information to other members of the group
-location of pollen source
-duration of waggle says how far away source is

Question 22

sexually selected signals

Answer 22

-advertise male quality to females
-selected under preferences of females
-ornaments
-zebra finch ; more orange, more attractive to female

Question 23

agonistic signals

Answer 23

-fighting/conflict
-fiddler crab ; male has large claw, waves it to get someone away from territory
-red deer; roar to say how good the are at fighting

Question 24

conventional and costly signals : fiddler crab

Answer 24

conventional: size, structure
costly: energy required to raise large claw

Question 25

iridescent colouration in butterflies

Answer 25

-genus amorphous -iridescent blue -catch sunlight during displays, sends out flashing light -warning their rivals

Question 26

aposematic (warning) colouration

Answer 26

-poison arrow frogs -colours memorable -warning to predators (don't eat me) -yellow/black stripes trigger response in vertebrates to not eat them -hoverfly, a bumblebee batsman mimic

Question 27

plant to animal communication

Answer 27

-insects see in UV light -plants evolved under this selection pressure -different look under UV light to attract pollinators

Question 28

signals

Answer 28

"information carriers" a trait that evolved to transmit information

Question 29

defining communication 1

Answer 29

communication occurs when... -the behaviour of one animal influences the behaviour of another -but not by direct action -by supplying information

Question 30

brood communication definition

Answer 30

-the transmission of information -not necessarily a signal

Question 31

visual signal

Answer 31

fast, short, can have high to low directionality

Question 32

acoustic signal

Answer 32

medium speed, short, high to low directionality

Question 33

chemical signal

Answer 33

slow, long, high to low directionality

Question 34

multi-component signal; ladybirds

Answer 34

aposematic colouring, taste and smell

Question 35

multi-component signal; Red Jungle Fowl

Answer 35

sexual displays with sound and vision wattle around head make a lot of noise

Question 36

# unintended recipients communication networks

Answer 36

unintended recipients might see signal and send one back

Question 37

eavesdropping in Siamese Fighting Fish

Answer 37

-pre-fighting signalling phase -2 males signalling to each other -can third male take information from that? -agonistic signal -swim up and down and wag tail -open opercular

Question 38

Siamese fighting fish experiment

Answer 38

-tank with 5 individuals -separated by dividers that can be moved -centre individual = eavesdropper -see others fighting but they can't see him -learns to recognise each stimulus fish -remove opaque barrier separating 2 stimulus fish so they can see each other -one will win and take territory close to barrier -other fish cowers away

Question 39

ritualisation

Answer 39

assumes both sender and receiver benefit behaviour that initially contains some information evolves into a signal

Question 40

evolution of ritualised behaviour

Answer 40

1. intention movement 2. displacement activities -birds about to fight start grooming as they don't know what to do 3. autonomic responses -cats hair stands on end ; saying back off

Question 41

sensory exploitation

Answer 41

-conflict of interests -exploitation of existing 'sensory bias' -male spiders stimulate prey sensing receptors in females -lure in angler fish exploits predatory behaviour in prey -hover-flies exploit birds pre-existing bias of not eating yellow stripey things

Question 42

sales resistance

Answer 42

less likely to be taken in by something everyone could do

Question 43

deceptive signals

Answer 43

-i.e. in mimicry -if evolved by sensory exploitation, might be deceptive -limits on how much deception you can get away with -receivers under constant selection pressure to not be taken in by deception

Question 44

costly signals

Answer 44

-signals are costly to perform/maintain -only high quality individuals can afford all costs zebra finch; -orange colour costly -more orange beak, shows better quality -better forager etc

Question 45

Zahavi's handicap principle

Answer 45

-train in male pea fowl makes it harder to fly, but advertises quality to females -roaring in male red Der uses energy but advertises fighting ability to competitors -stotting in Thompsons gazelle ; doesn't get them further away from predator, but shows athletic ability

Question 46

anoles lizard

Answer 46

sit and wait predators costly; -time waiting -time it takes to capture prey -reveals itself to predators & prey -energy to capture prey

Question 47

optimality approach

Answer 47

economics of prey choice; -eat item in front of you or look for another one -patch residence time

Question 48

costs, benefits and optima graph

Answer 48

-start with axis, build up layers of complexity as you go -height of line etc determined by environment -pink are, benefits exceed costs -digestive contraints affect linear plateau

Question 49

costs benefits & optima

Answer 49

cost minimisation strategy ; bare minimum to stay in benefit optimum point at which benefit-cost is maximised; net rate of energy intake maximise benefits; biggest difference between black & red line

Question 50

# chosing musclces economic of prey choice

Answer 50

-unlimited muscles -range of different sizes to chose from -ignored really large and really small -chose intermediate size -small muscles very low profitability -large muscles, too much energy to crack open

Question 51

brown bears

Answer 51

-dont always eat whole fish -if in abundance, don't waste time eating nutrient free muscle -e.g. only eat roe of the females

Question 52

patch residence time, green turtles

Answer 52

has to move from patch of sea grass to the next how long should they stay at each patch?

Question 53

patch residence time assumptions

Answer 53

-food depletion -as you eat at patch, becomes les and less of it until it Is no longer viable -diminishing returns -to start, loads and loads, but as abundance reduces, harder to find food -currency = net rate of energy intake

Question 54

patch residence time solutions

Answer 54

-eat one mouthful per patch and then move -too costly in terms of travel -eat everything at patch and the move -problem of diminishing returns

Question 55

optimal residence time

Answer 55

determined by several factors ; -travel time between patches -diminishing returns on foraging efficiency with increased resident time

Question 56

maximising energy gain over time

Answer 56

-energy/time -graphically answer given by curve -long travel time, long patch residence -short travel time, short patch residence

Question 57

MVT

Answer 57

=marginal value theorem applied to numerous behavioural traits; -duration of mating -mate guarding -trade-off between size and number of offspring -diving patterns in air-breathing mammals

Question 58

optimality theory criticisms

Answer 58

-evolution does not produce perfection -panglosian paradigm, well adapted not perfect -other ways to come to solution, not just maths -foraging is only one thing animal has to do -dugongs alter foraging behaviour when sharks are around

Question 59

contest behaviour

Answer 59

-members of same species compete for access to resources -exclude opponent from resource -agonistic, aggressive, fighting behaviour -intra-specific

Question 60

giraffes

Answer 60

-long neck evolved as weapons for males to fight over access to females -akull and vertebrate heavily armoured in makes -male neck mass increases with age -giraffes prefer to eat low level shrubbery

Question 61

behavioural adaptations for aggression

Answer 61

-communication ; signals and displays -fighting -trials of strength -injuries -fatalities

Question 62

morphological adaptations for aggression

Answer 62

-ornaments -colouration -weapons -large body size

Question 63

# male characters red deer contest

Answer 63

-same sex groups until rut in October -shed antlers after rut and re-grow them -males agonistic signal = groaning -compete to win guard of harem of females

Question 64

structure of red deer contests

Answer 64

1. roaring, rate varies, tiring 2. parallel walking, allows more accurate description of body size 3. antler pushing , strength -sometimes roaring or parallel walking is enough to settle a fight

Question 65

how do red deer contests end

Answer 65

-2/3 start with roaring -majority fights start with roaring, most go on to parallel walk and ~30% fight -communication important

Question 66

# fighting signals what information do they contain?

Answer 66

-telling opponent how much you want to win -advertise ability, not duration -saying how long you can fight is a bad idea as tells opponent how long they need to last -try to persuade rival to give up

Question 67

badges of status

Answer 67

in groups, dominants often have morphological badges that indicate status not costly to produce

Question 68

Harris' sparrow

Answer 68

-making black feathers is costly -painted subordinate individuals to make them look dominant -wouldnt work as eventually have to back up signal

Question 69

escalation in siamese fighting fish

Answer 69

a) lateral orientation b) tail-beating c) frontal orientation d) biting e) mouth wrestling f) chasing

Question 70

signals aren't always enough

Answer 70

-fighting more prolonged and dangerous the contestants are closely matched -cant assess opponent and make decisions based on signals alone

Question 71

mule deer

Answer 71

don't live as long as red deer so if don't breed in one season, might not get chance

Question 72

narwhals

Answer 72

tusk is canine tooth that keeps growing and pierces top lip -only present in male

Question 73

elephant seal

Answer 73

-proportion of fights will keep going until one dies -so wether individual would rather die than back down? if lose fight, don't get to reproduce

Question 74

serious fights

Answer 74

in contests defined by communication or wrestling, the key factor is assessment -serious fights with injuries are rare and only occur when rewards are greater than costs

Question 75

# statistics fatal fighting

Answer 75

-10% of male mule deer are injured in fights each year -60%+ male narwhals have injuries from fights at one point in their life -5-10% male musk ox die in head to head collisions

Question 76

fatal fighting in polymorphic fig wasps

Answer 76

-all eggs hatch inside figs -2 male morphs, wingless fighters and winged dispersers -wingless males large mandibles to decapitate rivals: 77% dead -remaining males will mate with females in fig

Question 77

# chance of winning relative RHP

Answer 77

in any given fight, absolute RHP is not going to determine whether you win -actual chance of winning varies between contests -depends on ability relative to opponent

Question 78

ownership

Answer 78

-male lions compete aggressively for oestrus females -but among pride males 'ownership' is respected -if equal in size and age, males already with an oestrus female will not be challenged -following take over, chance of reproductive success is very low : 1/3000

Question 79

resident advantage

Answer 79

1. residents are better fighters 2. residents have more to lose so fight harder when challenged 3. the winner is decided arbitrarily e.g. mechanical advantage - experiments with greta tits support 2 - experiments with fiddler crabs support 3

Question 80

sexual selection and contest

Answer 80

many male sexually selected traits are characters that enhance an individuals ability in male-male competition; a. large body size b. elaborate plumage c. complex song - not all fights over access to mates

Question 81

frequency dependence

Answer 81

benefit of a strategy depends on opponent strategy

Question 82

strategies

Answer 82

-contestants chose from defined set of strategies -overall 'plan of action' -deer fights, strategy is to roar, parallel walk then antler wrestle -different from tactics

Question 83

tactic

Answer 83

how to implement game plan in contest

Question 84

evolutionary games theory

Answer 84

-what should natural selection chose over evolutionary time -ESS

Question 85

steps to analysing fighting games

Answer 85

1. specify the alternative strategy 2. specify the average pay-off for each alternative 3. find the expected solution -> ESS

Question 86

the hawk dove game ; the strategy

Answer 86

-1975 -not actual hawks and doves -doves; always display but never fight -hawks; only withdraw when injured, always fight -dove v dove, always use displays

Question 87

hawk dove game: pay-off

Answer 87

- E= pay-off (varies according to what opponent does - V = (+), value of resource - C = (-), cost on injury (injury will reduce fitness)

Question 88

hawk-dove game : E

Answer 88

-H v H = 50% chance of winning, but 50% risk of injury -H v D = H always wins -D v H = no injury, no win -D v D = no injury, 50% chance of winning

Question 89

# H D games 'pay-off matrix'

Answer 89

-H v H = 1/2 (V+C) -H v D = V -D v H = 0 -D v D = 1/2(V)

Question 90

hawk dove game ; solution

Answer 90

-the ESS when adopted by all members, population cannot be invade by mutant alternative all individuals playing hawk, mutant dove would not do well

Question 91

ancestral population of doves

Answer 91

-average pay-off = 25 -hawk mutation would invade because h v d= 50 -dove is not ess

Question 92

ancestral population of hawks

Answer 92

-average pay-off = 12.5 -dove mutation cannot invade because when d meets h, pay-off = 0 -hawk = ESS when V>C

Question 93

C>V: mixed ESS

Answer 93

-proportion of individuals play hawk, the rest play dove -(or) all individuals play hawk sometimes, dove the rest of the time -ratio depends on difference between V and C

Question 94

ESS is not the optimal strategy

Answer 94

-at ESS average pay-off to hawks and doves is 12.5/contest -optimal strategy would be all doves -but, not ESS as can be invaded by hawks

Question 95

H - D fight asymmetries

Answer 95

-hawk-dove game assumes symmetric contests -opponents place same value of resource -opponents equal RHP -but, not usually the case -there is differences in fighting ability between opponents

Question 96

RHP

Answer 96

Resource Holding Potential

Question 97

assessor strategy

Answer 97

assess opponents RHP play hawk if stronger, dove if weaker

Question 98

# how often assesor wins assessor winning ability

Answer 98

-assessor strategy, chose to play hawk or dove dependant on strength -A= assessor -assessors win 3/4 of resources all together -assessors can invade populations of both doves and hawks -pure ESS of assessor strategy

Question 99

E(A,A) = 1/2V

Answer 99

-E= pay-off when an assessor meets an assessor they have a 50% chance of winning and no chance of injury

Question 100

E(H,A) = 1/2(V+C)

Answer 100

hawk will always fight and the assessor will fight or run away so hawks have 50% chance of winning and 50% chance of injury

Question 101

E(D,A) = 1/4 V

Answer 101

-half the time, dove has better RHP -both play dove, dove wins half of these -half the time, dove has lower RHP -assessor plays hawk, dove always loses but receives no injury -overall dove wins 1/2 contests when stronger, none when weaker

Question 102

E(A,H) = 1/2V

Answer 102

-assessor will have higher RHP half the time, and win those fights when lower RHP, assessor plays dove and loses without injury

Question 103

E(A,D) = 3/4V

Answer 103

-half the time, assessor has better RHP -assessor wins all of these playing hawk -half the time, assessor has lower RHP -wins half of these playing dove -assessor wins half contests when weaker, all when stronger

Question 104

H-D-A games 'pure ESS'

Answer 104

-in a population of assessors the average pay-off is 25 -assessor is stable against invasion of doves and hawks -playing assessor all the time is the ESS

Question 105

Hawk-dove-bourgeois game

Answer 105

bourgeois strategy is to respect ownership similar results to H-D-A bourgeois is the ESS when C>V

Question 106

real hawks and doves

Answer 106

an over simplification assumes displays are free makes some predictions that are upheld by observation of nature

Question 107

anisogamy

Answer 107

-different sized gametes -used to define 'male' and 'female' -'macrogametic' : female egg, seeds etc -large, expensive, fewer in number -'microgametic' : male, small, cheap, millions produced

Question 108

Batemans principle

Answer 108

1948 -consequences if disparity in gamete size -darwinian ideas in context of genetics

Question 109

# egg limited drosophila mating

Answer 109

-in tubes -isolated male = 0 offspring -male + 1 female = 30 to 40 offspring -male + 2 females = double -male + 3 females = triple (double again) -female mating with multiple males sees no difference in offspring produced -egg limited

Question 110

male tactics

Answer 110

mate with as many females as possible to fertilise maximum number of ova sperm is cheap and seldom a limiting factor in reproduction, so males often less choosy with mates

Question 111

sexual dimorphism in primates

Answer 111

-differences in size between males and females -Lemurs, Indri etc -1 male per female, relatively same size as each other -baboons etc -2-3 females per male, so strong selection for bigger size in male -higher number of potential mates, higher selection for sexual dimorphism

Question 112

elephant seals chance of mating

Answer 112

-highly skewed distribution of males fitness due to competition -highest ranked seal produces a lot of offspring -2nd ranked, not even a fraction -some never get to mate, as when rank goes down, so does mating success

Question 113

male tactics: when to be choosy

Answer 113

-if they have high parental investment -female quality important for rearing offspring -pair bonds constrain number of mates and EPCs per male

Question 114

# precedence etc types of sperm competition

Answer 114

-sperm precedence -benefit of being first or last -typically first in mammals -raffle -more sperm, more likely to fertilise -displacement -remove sperm of other individuals

Question 115

sperm removal example dunnock

Answer 115

male dunnoqcks peck females cloaca to stimulate ejection of sperm

Question 116

sperm competition in damselflies

Answer 116

-females mate with several and actively promote male-male competition -males have sperm scoops on their penis -removes over 90% previous males sperm before releasing own gametes -last male fertilises most eggs

Question 117

mate guarding white fronted beeeaters

Answer 117

-males increase frequency of mating with partner prior to egg laying ; sperm competition -males spend more time near partner prior to egg laying ; reduces EPCs ten-fold -after egg-laying, males pursue EPCs; females too busy incubating

Question 118

nuptial gifts

Answer 118

-'gifts to the bride' -used to attract mates and convince them to copulate -honest signals, need to be costly -low quality males can't do it -females katydids often eat the spermatophore -healthy females incorporate protein into eggs, weak ones use it to increase health

Question 119

# spiders the ultimate nuptial gift

Answer 119

-redback male spiders jump into females mouth to induce feeding -well fed females less likely to re-mate -male soma increases size of egg mass -soma=body -finding another female is difficult to low population density -so males have nothing to lose

Question 120

female tactics

Answer 120

-eggs costly and in limited supply -females should be choosy and only mate with high quality males -female reproductive success is limited by quality of offspring -sometimes by parental care -hoping high quality male will produce high quality offspring

Question 121

criteria of females choice

Answer 121

-large body size, bright colouration, elaborate ornaments -signals of male quality -female peacocks that mate with better males lay more eggs, larger eggs and have offspring with higher growth rates

Question 122

widow birds

Answer 122

-males have long tails -females prefer males with longer tails -elongated tails, double to reproductive success

Question 123

# gametes problems for Bateman

Answer 123

-males can be sperm limited -can't explain everything -female ECP -monogamy -polyandry -male mate choice -sex role reversal -anisogamy not reason for everything

Question 124

# epc female collard lizard

Answer 124

-females have higher hatching success if they mate with multiple males -higher fitness

Question 125

why should females seek ECPs

Answer 125

-fertility insurance -acquisition of nutrients -parental care -avoidance of harassment -change of partner -genetic diversity -good genes -sexy sons -avoid male harassment -check out available talent

Question 126

monogamy

Answer 126

stable social pair bond between one male and one female

Question 127

polygyny

Answer 127

'many wives/husbands' stable social systems with 'pair' bonds between multiple individuals

Question 128

monogamous systems

Answer 128

-male/female together for period of time -can go off to other individuals, but come back together -sometimes pays partners to mate monogamously -pair bonds correlate with reproductive success -longer together more reproductive success

Question 129

female distribution theory

Answer 129

potential for polygyny depends on female distribution -dispersed females cannot be defended

Question 130

female defence polygyny

Answer 130

-male defends group of females -male size very important -selected for large body size to aid in defence -common mating system in males e.g. gorillas, red deer etc -in coriphidae, males much larger than females so that they can carry them around

Question 131

# male behaviours coriphidae

Answer 131

-siphohoecetive amphipods -live in cases made of sand and shell fragments -males collect females and glue their shells to their own

Question 132

# nesting montoezyma oropendolas

Answer 132

-nest colonially -anti-predator strategy -domiant males defend colony excluding all other males -gets 80% of copulations -dominant male shifts if females move the colony

Question 133

resource defence polygyny

Answer 133

-Males defend clumped resource that attracts several females -food, territories, breeding sites etc -polygyny in birds typically due to resource defence polygyny -can defend any females in its territory

Question 134

# shells cichlid

Answer 134

-małe cichlid collects snail shells -tiny females lay eggs in shells -males huge; 12 times larger than females -male size correlated with reproductive success -large males have up to 100 shells and 30 females -sexual dimorphism

Question 135

# benefits and skews in sex ratio polygyny and female choice

Answer 135

-benefit of polygyny differs between sexes -some males benefit greatly, but not all -look at skew in male mating success -females have little to gain and may lose resources or parental care -unmated males difficult to lose

Question 136

# male care, resource abundance no cost to polygyny

Answer 136

if males provide no parental care there may be no sexual-conflict over polygyny cost of polygyny to females may be zero if resources are super abundant

Question 137

# what are others doing polygyny threshold model

Answer 137

best possible strategy depends on what others are doing when resources are limited females should mate monogamously on high quality territories

Question 138

# mating options for females wiith restricted mates limited resources ; remaining options

Answer 138

1) mate polygynously on high quality territories -females accept polygyny because benefit more from being polygynous on high quality territory than monogamous on low quality 2) mate monogamously on poor territory

Question 139

# payment? problems with PTM

Answer 139

-ideal free assumptions invalid in some cases -if ideal, at equilibrium all individuals should have the same pay-off -not free -resident female doesn't want additional females as they will have reduced fitness

Question 140

sexy son hypothesis

Answer 140

-good genes argument -provide high offspring survival -females can still benefit from polygyny -mate with high quality male with hope son will have some characteristics -sons with greater ability to be polygynous -little evidence, low heritability

Question 141

deception

Answer 141

female may not know male is already mated but once she has laid clutch and male has deserted, its too late to remate polygyny is the best of the bad job

Question 142

# deception hypothesis pied flycatchers

Answer 142

females support deception hypothesis males sneak off to mate with other female, then goes back to primary female secondary female has to rear alone

Question 143

# many males social polyandry

Answer 143

-polygyny more common due to anisogamy -not just mating with many males, but socially bonding with them -male, some chance of being father of offspring -sex ratio normally 50/50

Question 144

electus parrots

Answer 144

-up to 7 males form stable pair bond with one female and help raise 1 or 2 offspring -typically one male father of chicks in one year -operational sex ratio skewed by female mortality and scarcity of next holes

Question 145

# males in female role sex-role reversal polyandry

Answer 145

-males provide all parental care -males are choosy -females are larger and have elaborate secondary sexual characteristics -females have higher fitness than males

Question 146

# sex reversal sequential polyandry; spotted sandpipers

Answer 146

-females arrive on breeding grounds before males and fight for territories -small males incubate clutch while female defends territory and courts second male

Question 147

# sperm competition why do males accept polyandry

Answer 147

-low cost to parental care -male bias in sex ratio -first male paternity in 2nd brood -females store sperm -secondary male might father offspring that aren't his -polyandry is best of a bad job for 2nd male

Question 148

# coutship calls tungara frogs

Answer 148

variable courtship call if lots of competition, male can scale up call to make it more attractive with 'chucks' but, more attractive call makes male more vulnerable bat more early localise frog when it gives whine and chuck

Question 149

# predation environments guppies in trinidad

Answer 149

-guppies live in streams that differ in predators they have to contend with -some stream sections are high predator environments (HP) other low predation (LP)

Question 150

predation effects guppies

Answer 150

predation affects appearance and behaviour HP males smaller and more drab than LP HP males invest less in courtship HP guppies shoal more

Question 151

# experience innate recognition

Answer 151

-learning requires experience, but experience can be fatal -'know your enemy' -visual cues in birds and fish -chemical cues in fish and amphibians -auditory cues in brush turkeys

Question 152

# crickets warning eggs maternal effects

Answer 152

-female field crickets exposed to the predators cues warn eggs before laying -when offspring tested, exposed offspring were more wary than controls -survivorship greater in exposed group

Question 153

# learning cues

Answer 153

-learn socially by learning others responses to visual or chemical cues -relies on classical conditioning - response to conspecific alarm is hardwired -chemical cues often used - allows long range learning

Question 154

# risk averse behaviours balance response to risk

Answer 154

-risk averse behaviour can be costly, so can risk prone behaviour -need to identify and respond -don't run, not a predator = true negative -run, not predator = false positive - don't run, predator = false negative - run, predator = true positive

Question 155

predator inspection

Answer 155

approach a threatening organism in their habitat and gather information about; ~ level of satiety ~its prey preference prey animal can assess level of risk

Question 156

# (and examples) crypsis

Answer 156

-camouflage -match background, not just visual can be auditory -moths fuzzy to protect against echolocation -only works effectively if animals move at the same speed as background -stick insect, blow on it and it will sway like breeze to blend in with environment

Question 157

masquerade

Answer 157

camouflage without crypts looks like something you don't eat to eat resembling inedible object

Question 158

refugia

Answer 158

-coexisting -going to part of habitat predator can't follow -clownfish: anemones -shrimp cleaning goby's home -frilled lizard, eye spots

Question 159

# non-visual (auditory) dietetic displays

Answer 159

-can be non-visual e.g. auditory -some animals produce distress calls, but these are not recruitment calls -peacock butterflies produce hissing sounds and high-intensity ultrasonic clicks and cause predatory rodents to flee

Question 160

chemical defences

Answer 160

deterent used by small, delicious animals not many mammals, but skunks impressive some smells make animals easier to find

Question 161

aposematism

Answer 161

signalling poisonousness widespread - nudibranchs, sea snakes, caterpillars and many others important to be conspicuous

Question 162

mullein mimicry

Answer 162

two or more unpalatable species converge to look similar, gain great benefit

Question 163

batesian mimicry

Answer 163

edible or palatable species resemble an inedible species. success is frequency dependant

Question 164

rapid locomotion

Answer 164

-prey animals adopted to move fast -lepidopterans ; fast flying species more likely to survive attack -trade-off; fast flying insects may have to devote up to half of body mass for flight muscle

Question 165

# lizard+insect misdirect predators attack

Answer 165

lizard: sheds tail, tail wriggles to misdirect predator insects: false heads, 180º after landing to confuse birds

Question 166

# what do they release? sea hares

Answer 166

-when attacked, release 2 chemicals 1. a purple ink 2. sticky substance called opaline -ink contains amino acids and is highly attractive -opaline deactivates chemical senses of the attacker

Question 167

# dead thanatosis

Answer 167

-be less appealing, play dead -many species engage in this including; lizards, moulting spiders etc -virginia opossum backs up its signal *heart rate drops, body goes floppy, starts drooling and urinates

Question 168

ambush

Answer 168

-stealth, crypisis and limited movement -not just visual crypts, also scent *dog rolling in faeces -assassin bugs *disguised visually and chemically *use prey debris and plant resin

Question 169

# spiderwebs trap builders

Answer 169

-ant lions dig pits -spider webs; use glue & electric charge *web has negative charge *insects (flying) pick up positive charge ~stick to web

Question 170

tentacled snakes

Answer 170

-use feint attacks to manipulate escape responses of fish prey -gets into position and initiates fake attack with middle of their body -fish elicits escape response in wrong direction - directly into snakes mouth

Question 171

pursuit

Answer 171

-relies on speed and endurance -sometimes referred to as persistence hunting -effective, but aerobic muscle is not good for hunting -wild dogs have higher capture rate, but often lose prey to larger carnivores -chase in high heats until predator passes out

Question 172

predator adaptations specifics

Answer 172

-orcas different colours/patterns/types dependant on prey type -great tits eat parts of sleeping bats -grasshopper mice howl to attract prey, then jump on back of spraying beetle to prevent being sprayed

Question 173

mantis shrimp

Answer 173

-punch through shells -heavily modified 2nd leg

Question 174

# birds+mammals+fish patterns of parental care and mating systems

Answer 174

birds: typically male and female parental care with majority being monogamous mammals: female parental care and typical polygynous mating fish: male parental care, polygynous, polyandrous, polygynandrous

Question 175

dunnock mating systems

Answer 175

variable mating system monogamy: biparental care polygyny: male helps 2 females in proportion to mating polyandry: 2 males care at 1 nest, in proportion to mating

Question 176

parental care - mammals

Answer 176

polygyny common female uniparental care in 95% species *prolonged gestation, mammary glands males could protect and feed females *but they spend most time mating with additional females

Question 177

parental care - fish

Answer 177

most show no parental care male care common with external fetilisation female care common with internal fertilisation

Question 178

sexual conflict and parental care

Answer 178

*in many cases, benefits either parent to desert *4 possible outcomes; -no parental care -female only care -male only care -biparental care

Question 179

# how fertilisation happens certainty of paternity hypothesis

Answer 179

-with internal fertilisation, male is unsure of paternity *less willing to invest parental care -with external fertilisation, male more confidence in paternity *but cuckoldry is still possible

Question 180

# paternity rrelated ?? bluegill sunfish

Answer 180

males perform less egg defence if another male was present when eggs were fertilised

Question 181

# in terms of parental care association hypothesis

Answer 181

-association with eggs or young pre-adapt parent to provide parental care *to an extent parental care is an exaptation -males are associated with externally fertilised eggs layed in their territory *defend eggs and young while defending territory -females are associated with young when there is internal fertilisation

Question 182

ESS parental options

Answer 182

Po = probability of egg survival with no care P1= probability of egg survival with 1 parent P2 = probability of egg survival with 2 parents P2> P1> Po

Question 183

ESS other ratios

Answer 183

p = chance for a deserting male of mating again W = number of eggs of female deserter w = number eggs for care giving female W>w

Question 184

female and male dessert if:

Answer 184

WP>wP1 (or female will care) Po (1+p) > P1 (or male will care)

Question 185

parental desertion favoured if:

Answer 185

W>>w p is large P0 ≈ P1

Question 186

female cares and male deserts if

Answer 186

wP1 > Who (or female will desert) P1 (1+P) > P2 (or male will care)

Question 187

female only care favoured if:

Answer 187

p is large W≈w P1>> Po and P2≈P1

Question 188

female deserts and males care if:

Answer 188

WP1 > wP2 (or female will care) P1>Po (1+p) (or male will dessert)

Question 189

male only care if:

Answer 189

W>>w p is small P1>>Po and P2 ≈ P1

Question 190

female and male care if:

Answer 190

wP2>WP1 (or female will desert) P2>P1 (1+P) (or male will desert)

Question 191

biparental care if:

Answer 191

P2>>P1 p is small

Question 192

brood parasite - host coevolution

Answer 192

-evolutionary arms race -brood parasites evolve adaptations to maximise success e.g. egg mimicry -hosts evolve tactics to avoid parasitism e.g. egg recognition, aggression towards parasites

Question 193

intra-specific brood parasitism

Answer 193

-same species acts as host -over 200 species of birds -brood parasitism in coots *females which lack territories parasite territory holders *territorial females prioritise neighbours nests

Question 194

common cuckoo

Answer 194

-inter-specific brood parasite: other species acts as host -lay eggs in nests of over 100 other species -only 11 hosts frequently parasitise -hosts smaller than cuckoo -females lay mimetic eggs -individual females are host specialists

Question 195

# what do they do? European cuckoo

Answer 195

-female cuckoos stake out host nests -wait until host clutch initiated -wait near nest before laying -removes one host egg and lays one egg -at nest for only 10 seconds

Question 196

# how are they detected? European cuckoo tactics

Answer 196

-laying tactics prevent detection -josts aggressive to adult cuckoo near nest -rejection of cuckoo egg more likely if female cuckoo detected -reed warblers use social information (alarm calls of neighbours) to detect female cuckoos

Question 197

# young cuckoo European cuckoo adaptations

Answer 197

adaptations of cuckoo eggs and young; * shorter incubation times, usually hatch before host eggs * young cuckoo ejects all other eggs and hatchlings from the nest * begging calls of cuckoo mimic entire host brood

Question 198

egg mimicry

Answer 198

cuckoo eggs usually slightly larger than host, but much smaller than would be expected given the size of the cuckoo

Question 199

# discrimination cuckoo - host coevolution

Answer 199

-most hosts show discrimination of eggs -degree of mimicry is related to host species' ability to discriminate * less discriminate hosts –> lower similarity of parasitic and hosts eggs * dunnock-cuckoo lays non-mimetic eggs and dunnoqcks don't reject

Question 200

why accept parasitic eggs?

Answer 200

-acceptance behaviour may be due to costs of rejection * accidental damage and ejection –e.g. reed warblers occasionally throw out or damage their own eggs * learning involved in egg recognition

Question 201

imprinting on eggs

Answer 201

-naive hosts must imprint on their own eggs to distinguish and reject foreign eggs -experienced birds have a recognition template for their own eggs * can't reject parasitic egg without seeing their own eggs

Question 202

obligate siblicide

Answer 202

-siblicide always occurs e.g Black eagles -2 egg clutches -highly asynchronous hatching -death of junior chick usually 1-2 days after hatching

Question 203

facultative siblicide

Answer 203

-siblicide sometimes occurs -galapagos fur seals * up to 23% females give birth whilst still feeding an older pup * youngest pup may starve or be killed by older sibling during unfavourable environmental conditions - also found in egrets, herons, owls, kittiwakes etc

Question 204

non-lethal sibling aggression requirements

Answer 204

-resources which are limited and monopolizable -asymmetry in offspring -non-lethal, but still violent. can lead to death of smallest offspring

Question 205

piglet non-lethal aggression

Answer 205

-fight for access to treats -precocial development of canine teeth -establish hierarchy within hours of birth

Question 206

# P-O conflict scramble competition

Answer 206

-young compete for position close to parent -position in nest is an important determinant of who gets fed -offspring size important determinant of ability to monopolise primary location

Question 207

begging

Answer 207

offspring use vocal and visual displays to compete for food – resources allocated to chicks that beg at the highest intensity

Question 208

non-aggressive brood reduction

Answer 208

-hatching asynchrony leads to size hierarchies in the brood -asymetries in food allocation * differences in growth rate & fledgling weight * mortality of youngest/smallest offspring

Question 209

p-o conflict parents perspective

Answer 209

offspring alpha and beta are equally related to the parent (r=0.5) and therefore have equal value

Question 210

p-o conflict offspring alpha perspective

Answer 210

values itself (r=1) twice as much as it values sibling or parent (r=0.5)

Question 211

Hamiltons rule

Answer 211

-alturism favoured when r B>C -conflict among kin will arise when demand outstrips supply

Question 212

p-o conflict numerical example

Answer 212

-mother with 2 dependant young -mother has 2 indivisible prey items -eating 1 prey item would increase other offsprings fitness by 4 units -eating 2 prey items wild increase either offsprings fitness by 7 units -parental optimum is to share food equally between alpha and beta

Question 213

# optimistic clutch sizes resource tracking hypothesis

Answer 213

-parents lay optimistic clutch size to capitalise on unpredictably favourable environmental conditions -in bad years, brood size must be reduced -hatching asynchrony facilitates brood reduction

Question 214

replacement offspring hypothesis

Answer 214

-core set of offspring which parents can support and marginal offspring which are expendable -marginal offspring are a form of insurance incase of egg infertility, mortality etc -explains obligate siblicide in Nazca Booby

Question 215

parental favouritism

Answer 215

-baby American coots have orange-tipped feathers on their backs and throats -orange-tipped chicks fed preferentially * higher growth rates and survival * parents use feather colour as a signal

Question 216

sex ratio

Answer 216

-proportion of individuals that are male -equal males and females seen in many taxa (0.5) number of males ÷ number of males + number of females

Question 217

why 0.5?

Answer 217

-half genes from each sex -if less of one sex, they will contribute more offspring per capita -individuals investing in the rare sex will be fitter -if investing in rare sex is hereditary, alleles for rare offspring will increase in frequency -eventually ratio will be 0.5 and offspring of both sexes will be equally beneficial

Question 218

fishers theory of equal investment

Answer 218

-think of theory as a pendulum -behaving in particular way dependant on how many individuals are also behaving that way -male biased: fitness of female>male * selection favours parents who produce females -female biased: fitness male >female *selection favours parent that produces males

Question 219

sex ratio in humans

Answer 219

-1.05 male: 1 female -unbalance, slightly in favour of males -males cheaper to make * less base pairs, one X, one Y * males more reckless; higher mortality -overall investment in each sex is equal

Question 220

assumptions of equal investment

Answer 220

-males and females contribute equally to the gene-pool -panmaxis: random mating -equal investment returns (benefit/cost) from offspring of each sex -theory of equal investment is a non-fisherman model

Question 221

non-fisherman sex ratios

Answer 221

-get the same back from male and female offspring (equal investment returns) -if fisher correct, deviation from returns should lead to deviation from 0.5 in investment -if males and females cost the same, this is equivalent to deviation from 0.5 in sex ratio

Question 222

local mate competition (LMC)

Answer 222

-if males don't disperse far, brothers will have to compete for access to females -'unsuccessful' sons are a waste -when sons compete, average value to mother is reduced -> mother should favour daughters

Question 223

theory of LMC acariform mite

Answer 223

-complete isolation of brood, all reproduction occurs inside the mother -inbreeding, sons fertilise their sisters -viviparous: live young -sons die, only females produced

Question 224

LMC parasitoid wasps

Answer 224

-degree of sex ratio determined by strength of LMC -females lay eggs in fly pupae, multiple broods can be laid in one pupae -degree of isolation depends on how many broods played in one host * more broods, closer sex ratio gets to 0.5

Question 225

LMC parasitoid wasps : clutch sizes

Answer 225

-only mated females disperse, sons compete to fertilise sisters -small clutches, male biased -large clutches, female biased -number of mothers in pupae increases, clutches get smaller

Question 226

# number of females, number of mothers? strength of LMC

Answer 226

-variable -more than 1 female can lay eggs in host -increasing mothers, strength of LMC declines -female bias in sex ratio should diminish with increasing number of mothers -successive mothers produce increasing number of males

Question 227

ephemeral

Answer 227

don't stay in same place after mating occurs (or, short-lived)

Question 228

LMC assumes

Answer 228

1. offspring mature in discrete ephemeral groups 2. mating only within these groups 3. only mated females disperse

Question 229

Local resource competition (LCR)

Answer 229

-resources other than mates e.g. food, shelter *females compete for access to this -non-dispersing females subject to LCR -limited number of females can survive, so no point producing excess females

Question 230

LCR example

Answer 230

-females compete for food in Galago crassicaudatus -thick tailed bushbaby : male biased sex ratio due to LCR

Question 231

maternal condition

Answer 231

-fitness of one sec affected by unit of investment -good maternal condition = more milk - more milk = bigger offspring -big males wins more fights -so male size more beneficial for survival fitness of males tied to maternal condition more than fitness of females

Question 232

maternal condition: female quality

Answer 232

-males not fussy about who they mate with -so poor condition females produce more females, because males don't care what they look like -subordinate females also produce more females

Question 233

host quality

Answer 233

-bigger host = more food and therefore bigger offspring - in parasites females disperse, big females disperse further -fitness of females tied to host quality more than fitness of males

Question 234

host quality: females and mothers

Answer 234

-manipulate quality of host? -mothers can tell condition of host and adjust sex ratio in response to environment

Question 235

sex roles

Answer 235

the strategies for mate choice and competition over access to mates that males and females adopt

Question 236

sex role reversal definition

Answer 236

reversal in the usual mate choice and competitive strategies for access to mates adopted by males and females

Question 237

sex role reversal can occur if:

Answer 237

reproductive success of females is limited by the rate at which they can access males/male gametes

Question 238

sex role reversal possible when:

Answer 238

1. males invest heavily in parental care 2. sex ratio skewed in favour of females 3. there is sperm competition

Question 239

1) males invest heavily in parental care

Answer 239

-costs of reproduction normally higher in females * gamete production has a greater cost -total cost of reproduction = gamete production + parental care

Question 240

Jacanas

Answer 240

-partial sex role reversal -high rates of egg predation -females compensate by laying multiple clutches by mating with multiple males -males incubate -females hold territories and compete for males

Question 241

parental care definition

Answer 241

any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of surviving at the cost of the parents ability to invest in other offspring

Question 242

pipe fish

Answer 242

-brood pouch in male -male carries out pregnancy -male pregnancy is not sex role reversal, it is a cause of it -males choosy, prefer females with larger skin fold -females display and are larger

Question 243

fecundity

Answer 243

ability to produce an abundance of offspring or new growth: fertility

Question 244

female ornaments and fecundity

Answer 244

pipe fish, positive relationship between amount of blue colouration and number of eggs produced by females

Question 245

complete sex role reversal in pipe fish

Answer 245

-choosy males, assess female ornaments -competitive females, inhibition of female ornament development -polyandry to greatest extent in any animal taxon

Question 246

Jacanas male paternity costs

Answer 246

-males provide all parental care -can lose eggs to crocs -females store sperm -no guarantee of clutch paternity -males waste time and energy incubating other males offspring * up to 70% in highly polyandrous

Question 247

skewed sex ratio in favour of females

Answer 247

-expected operational sex ratio is 1:1 (=0.5) -if sex ratio is skewed *limit on rate most abundant sex can access mates *could be greater than constraints due to costs of parenthood *in female biased populations, could lead to sex-role reversal

Question 248

disproportionally high male mortality due to;

Answer 248

1. intra-sexual selection 2. increased risk of predation 3. sex-ratio distorters

Question 249

sex ratio distorter

Answer 249

selfish genes transfered exclusively via one sex and fatal to the other sex

Question 250

wolbachia bacterium

Answer 250

-present in Acrea encedon (butterfly) infects 80% of females, kills all male embryos population up to 95% female

Question 251

do females compete?

Answer 251

-male lekking swarms common in insects -In female biased populations, females form swarms -mated females more likely to leave swarm than virgins -female lekking swarms = female competition

Question 252

3. sperm limitation

Answer 252

-female fertilisation success constrained by supply of sperm -female reproductive success is limited by rate of access to male gametes

Question 253

spermatophores

Answer 253

-size increases with male body size -repeated copulations deplete the supply -size/number matches female quality -control over how much sperm you give to the female -present in crustaceans

Question 254

sperm limitation in spiny lobsters

Answer 254

-spermatophore provided by male increases with size of female mate -clutch size increases with spermatophore size -large females Mae earlier in breeding season

Question 255

limiting sex

Answer 255

-supplies gametes/mating opportunities at a low rate -reproductive success determined by quality of mates -choosy– sexual selection is weak -usulay females; male in sex-role reversed system

Question 256

limited sex

Answer 256

-supplies gametes/mating opportunities at a higher rate -reproductive success determined by rate of accessing mates -competetive– sexual selection is strong -usulay males; females in sex role reversed sysystem

Question 257

male fitness

Answer 257

depends on number of mates and is maximised through promiscuity

Question 258

females fitness

Answer 258

depends on quality of mates and is maximised through choosiness

Question 259

sexual conflict over

Answer 259

1) mate guarding by males 2) copulation attempts by unfavored males 3) duration of copulation 4) parental care duties 5) damage to females during fights between males 6) damage to females during mating 7) survival of previous young 8) survival of the male

Question 260

fight

Answer 260

two individuals adopting different roles; owner of resource and intruder -conflict normally driven by anisogamy

Question 261

anisogamy: basis of sexual conflict

Answer 261

in terms of reproduction, behaviour is not cooperative - there is conflict individuals have evolved to only think of maximising their own fitness

Question 262

amplexus

Answer 262

mate guarding in amphibians mating embrace, male positions on back of females and grasps tightly with front legs

Question 263

1) mate guarding by males

Answer 263

-males only have to subdue females in order to mate -males maximise fitness by preventing other males from accessing female gametes -male ownership removes female choice of mate -females should resist

Question 264

water striders

Answer 264

-post copulatory mate guarding -songle female slightly larger than the male -male stays on top of female after gamete transfer preventing another copulation -can last a few minutes to several weeks -in this species, there is always a male 'riding' the female

Question 265

female water striders

Answer 265

-mating is expensive for females -carrying male elevates metabolic rate *live male cheaper than dead male -struggling is also expensive *more so than carrying male *leads to 200% increase in metabolic rate *sustained for 16s before needing rest

Question 266

water striders grab rates

Answer 266

-on average, single females subjected to 20 grab attempts per hour -energetic cost of struggling increases with grab attempts per hour -female decision should depend on guarding and duration of struggle

Question 267

crustaceans

Answer 267

-pre-copulatory mate guarding -females can only mate after moulting -males guard females during pre-moult phase to ensure access to copulation -mates have capacity to tell when females about to moult * chemical released -males fight over ownership of guarded females

Question 268

costs and benefits male T. thermophilium

Answer 268

-costs *energy for locomotion *increased risk of predation *restricted access to food -benefits *access to mates

Question 269

costs and benefits females T. thermophillium

Answer 269

-costs *restricted choice of mates *increased risk of predation *restricted access to food -benefits *none? would get to mate anyway *males that resist shaking might be high quality

Question 270

are pre-copular pairs in sexual conflict?

Answer 270

-driven by male-male competition over females -large males guard females for longer -is females shaking just a test? *less time struggling, guarded for longer *shows female really trying to remove male *females interest to decrease time being guarded

Question 271

2) unfavored males

Answer 271

female preference for certain males unfavored males still want to copulate physically coerce females -e.g. in species with sexual size dimorphism

Question 272

female coping mechanisms

Answer 272

-females solicitate mating with dominant males -subordinate males try to mate with her *emit distress call *dominant male arrives and harms subordinate -cloaca in birds *fowl can evert cloaca to eject sperm

Question 273

manipulating social status

Answer 273

-high ranking male put in group where they become low ranking *sperm ejection increases -elevated in rank, sperm less likely to be ejected -females retain sperm of best quality males

Question 274

3) duration of copulation

Answer 274

prolonging duration of copulation so more sperm is transferred does not benefit females

Question 275

male spermatophore

Answer 275

-6% of body weight -2 components *ampula : contains sperm *spermatophylax : water & amino acids -amino acid prolongs copulation after male leaves -females feed on amino acid, makes her sleepy, nampula attached longer

Question 276

4) parental care duties

Answer 276

-in species with bi-parental care, one parent could benefit by deserting -offspring receive some care from remaining parent -extra mating outbalances loss of care to first brood -deserted parent loses fitness -plenty females, male deserts

Question 277

Kentish plovers

Answer 277

female desertion more males than females so females desert males lose fitness females stay if its late in the breeding season or the clutch is very large

Question 278

North American garter snakes

Answer 278

-end of hibernation, males want to copulate with as many females as possible, even immature ones -females killed in communal dens -small females most at risk -vary hibernation time to avoid males

Question 279

South American fur seals

Answer 279

-males sexually mature at 4-5 but mating is dominated by 7-9 year olds -younger males cooperate by dragging female out to sea -cooperation stops when out at sea, males start fighting over female -female can accidentally die

Question 280

6) intentional damage to female during mating

Answer 280

-if mating is dangerous, females avoid remating: reduces risk of sperm displacement -may reduce female survival: she might release more eggs increasing male paternity

Question 281

chemical warfare in drosophila

Answer 281

-chemical in male seminal induces hyper-ovulation in females males get more offspring females get shortened life evolution of female resistance to chemicals

Question 282

bean beetle

Answer 282

-intentional damage -damages females reproductive tract releas all gametes they have left?

Question 283

flatworms

Answer 283

hermaphrodites shoot sperm at each other to erode epithelium and allow sperm in can get ripped in half but don't die

Question 284

7) survival of previous young

Answer 284

lions: *males in pride don't often have conflict *new pride males can't take over pride *kill previous young to bring female into oestrus *female tries to hide young

Question 285

lactational amenhoria

Answer 285

in mammals females can't come back into oestrus when lactating

Question 286

orcas: survival of young

Answer 286

male wants to kill neonate to bring mother back into oestrus females will try t band together to attack male males mother helps male kill baby orca

Question 287

8) survival of the male

Answer 287

-sexual canabalism in praying mantis and orb web spiders -likely when females are larger than male -when females are predatory

Question 288

non-metal parasitism

Answer 288

the parasite benefits from relationship, while host pays cost

Question 289

classic parasites

Answer 289

can be divided into Endo and ectoparasites isopods attach to tongue of fish and eats it * fish can use isopod as tongue * isopod continues to feed on fish fluke worms

Question 290

parasitoids

Answer 290

spends portion of development inside host, typically consumes and/or kills host before emerging free-living life stage

Question 291

parasites overview

Answer 291

approx 20% all species are parasites all of us have some kind of parasite at any given time -living organisms are a landscape or canvas where parasites cab act -virulence of parasite depends on needs of parasite

Question 292

black spot disease

Answer 292

when get loads of black spots, other fish don't want to skool with it indirect parasitism * host more likely to be eaten

Question 293

sacculina and shore crabs

Answer 293

parasitic barnacles attaches to crab & enters through leg joint * crab doesn't know once crab infected, doesn't moult again or regenerate lost limbs crab can't reproduce

Question 294

sacculina

Answer 294

-energy diverted from crab reproduction to sacculina -crab reproductive behaviour co-opted for dispersing sacculina eggs -egg bearing females groom and clean the egg pouch and fan water over it * both males and females do this

Question 295

caterpillars and parasitic wasps

Answer 295

females oviposits into caterpillar caterpillar continues to develop and feed until larvae emerge some larvae stay behind control caterpillar so it will protect larval eggs from predators

Question 296

emerald cockroach wasp

Answer 296

-delivers 2 stings to cockroach brain -1st sting causes paralysis -2nd sting, more precise location, sub-oesophageal ganglia, disables escape reflex -leads cockroach to hole and lays egg on it -grun hatches and eats cockroach alive, but in very specific order

Question 297

malaria

Answer 297

-plasmodium manipulate mosquito in 3 ways *reduces risky feeding *interferes with blood drinking *tinkers with chemosensory system of mosquito -mosquitos attracted to particular smells

Question 298

cordyceps

Answer 298

fungus: ant brain jacker infects ant brain fungus erupts from ants head makes ant climb up high, so when fungus erupts, spread is maximised

Question 299

trophic transmission

Answer 299

animal needs to be eaten for transmission to happen

Question 300

parasitic flatworm

Answer 300

-adult stage release eggs, excreted by bird -eggs eaten by snail, hatch into larvae: miracida -miracidia travel to gut, develop into sporocysts -brood sacs highly conspicuous to birds, which eat them

Question 301

parasite conspicuousness

Answer 301

e.g. orange spot causes infected animals to be eaten more frequently may exploit sensitivity of fish = receiver bias

Question 302

toxoplasmosis

Answer 302

most successful parasite on earth starts life in cats carried by rats and mice toxoplasma convinces host to be eaten by cat human behavioural changes: *slower reaction times *schizoprhenia *reckless behaviour

Question 303

host countermeasure : allo-grooming

Answer 303

many animals allogroom social functions *affiliation reinforcement *reconciliation *courtship *bond reinforcement economic function, traded for food or sex

Question 304

anting

Answer 304

birds allow ants to move over their feathers removing parasites some species also crush ants and anoint themselves with formic acid

Question 305

cleaner fish

Answer 305

smaller fish remove parasites from larger fish, including predators mutualism : both parasites benefit from coopearating

Question 306

cleaner wrasse

Answer 306

-client fish held in cages with and without cleaners -fewer parasites on clients held with cleaners -wrasse occasionally cheat but overall benefit clients

Question 307

oxpeckers

Answer 307

-remove echo-parasites from various ungulates -also drink blood and prevent wounds healing -excluding/allowing oxpeckers had no effect on parasite levels -clients wounds took longer to heal when oxpeckers were present

Question 308

zoopharmacognosy

Answer 308

-ingestion or application of substances to kill parasites or discourage them from setting -olive baboons eat leaves to kill blood flukes -brown bears apply osha roots to fur to repel blood feeding insects

Question 309

birds and nicotine

Answer 309

in Mexico City, birds incorporate cigarette butts into nests nicotine kills ecto-parasites number of butts negatively correlated with parasite density

Question 310

cooperation

Answer 310

a behaviour which provides a benefit to another individual (recipient) and which is selected for because of its beneficial effect on the recipient

Question 311

many animals appear to act cooperative

Answer 311

-animals e.g. lions, sailfish, hunt in groups -meerkats act as sentinels allowing others to forage -social Hymenoptera have non-reproductive individuals which work "for the benefit of the colony?"

Question 312

prisoners dilema

Answer 312

-2 robbers arrested and held separately. insufficient evidence so each offered a choice; 1. testify against each other and be set free 2. stay silent and serve a short sentence -don't know what the other will do

Question 313

prisoners dilemma pay-off matrix

Answer 313

-prisoner A + B cooperate = 6 months -A cooperates, B defects = A gets 10 years -both defect = 5 years

Question 314

prisoner dilemma as an ESS

Answer 314

cooperation is not an ess it is the optimal solution overall but rational choice is defection

Question 315

kin selection

Answer 315

-characteristics favoured due to their beneficial effects on the survival of close relatives -benefit for offspring and non-descendant kin *parental care *feeding siblings *defence of family territory *sterile workers

Question 316

direct fitness

Answer 316

reproduction

Question 317

indirect fitness

Answer 317

aiding survival and reproduction of non-descendant kin

Question 318

inclusive fitness

Answer 318

direct + indurent fitness (Hamilton 1964)

Question 319

coefficient of relatedness (r)

Answer 319

a measure of genetic similarity descendant kin *offspring: r=0.5 *grandchildren: r=0.25 *great-grandchildren: r=0.125 non descendant kin *full sibling: r=0.5 *half sibling, niece/nephew: r=0.25 *cousins: r=0.125

Question 320

Hamiltons rule

Answer 320

central theorem of inclusive fitness (kin selection) * predicts social behaviour evolves under specific combinations of relatedness, benefit and cost * NS favours genetic success

Question 321

Hamiltons rule : predictions

Answer 321

-predicts when an altruistic gene will be favoured by selection -if cost to donor is C and benefit to recipient is B, gene will inrease in frequency if : rB>C -r= relatedness of recipient to donor

Question 322

genetic success

Answer 322

passing on of specific genes

Question 323

reproductive success

Answer 323

=fitness

Question 324

Hamiltons rule rB>C

Answer 324

-B = 10, C= 2 * offspring: r=1/2, 1/2(10)= 5 5>2 (benefit) * grandkids: r=1/4 1/4(10)= 2.5 2.5>2 (benefit) *great grandkids: r=1/8 1/8(10)=1.25 1.25<2 (cost)

Question 325

cooperation as a by-product

Answer 325

-can arise as byproduct of a selfish act -cooperation is best option from selfish POV, but also provides benefit to others -mutualisms in foraging, territory defence, predator detection

Question 326

cooperative hunting game

Answer 326

-two players share food equally -solo hunter will be mildly successful (4 units of energy) so each gets 2 units *hunting costs 1 unit, so pay-off to hunter is 2-1 = 1 unit -mutual hunting generates higher pay-off (10 units) *both individuals get 5-1 = 4 units

Question 327

reciprocity

Answer 327

-humans and primates -problem of cheating -can be an ESS under certain conditions -cooperate for as long as others do * always copy move of other individuals, but start cooperatively *optimal strategy

Question 328

iterate prisoners dilema

Answer 328

best strategy = tit for tat *cooperate on first iteration; after that do what opponent did on previous move successful strategies were nice, retaliating, foraging and non-envious *punish defection, cooperate if opponent cooperates, don't try to outscore opponent

Question 329

sharing of blood in vampires

Answer 329

-feed close relatives and unrelated roost mates that fail to find a meal -donors recognise cheats -close association in roosts is important -benefit to the recipient greatly outweighs cost to donor

Question 330

enforcement on cleaner wrasse

Answer 330

-client fish punish cleaners who feed on them, rather than their parasites, by chasing them or fleeing away -cleaners are more likely to feed on parasites after being punished

Question 331

manipulation

Answer 331

-what looks like cooperation on part of the donor may have evolved through the manipulation by the recipient -inter and intra specific brood parasitism -some pollination systems e.g. bee orchids -some seed dispersal systems e.g. burdock fruits

Question 332

cooperative breeding definition

Answer 332

a system of breeding characterised by the normal presence of helpers at some or all nests any type of parental behaviour e.g. nest maintenance

Question 333

helper definiton

Answer 333

an individual that performs parent like behaviour toward young that are not its own offspring

Question 334

singular breeding

Answer 334

one breeding female per group

Question 335

plural breeding

Answer 335

two or more breeding females per group, with either seperate or joint nests

Question 336

social system diversity in CB

Answer 336

-solitary to colonial breeders -helpers of either sex, related or unrelated to breeders -monogamous, polyandrous, polygynous, polygynandrous -mammals often see female helpers, birds often see males

Question 337

florida scrub jay characteristics

Answer 337

-extremely limited, oak scrub habitat -critically endangered -singular breeding -non-migratory, year round all purpose territory -relatively long lived -monogamous -completely extirpated in southern florida -great numbers only in state parks

Question 338

florida scrub jay - cooperative breeding

Answer 338

-offspring delay dispersal for at least 1 year (up to 3 years females, 6 years males) -offspring are helpers to parents *e.g. vigilance *not a lot of habitat for them to disperse to, so stay behind in hope of inheriting territory

Question 339

cooperative breeding black backed jackal

Answer 339

monogamous pairs 1-3 helpers from previous litters helpers feed pups and breeding female helpers increase fitness of breeders a lot of food, not many places to go, so form big groups

Question 340

facultative cooperative breeders

Answer 340

capable of breeding as lone pairs and forming extended family groups when conditions (abundant food, limited vacant territories) favour philopatry over dispersal

Question 341

cooperative breeding dwarf mongoose

Answer 341

-helpers prevented from breeding for 3-4 years by alpha male and female -stress other females out so much, cause a shift in hormones so they physically can't breed -unrelated helpers: waiting to take over breeding territory -breeding helpers: older helper females may be allowed to breed

Question 342

pseudopregnant helpers

Answer 342

young females may mate and lactate, but do not give birth

Question 343

cooperative breeding in anemone fish

Answer 343

clown fish -pairs defend territories (anemones) and may allow unrelated helpers to assist -helpers are investing in the long-term take over of the territory -protandrous hermaphrodites -either one of breeding pair dies, smaller helper can assume the male role

Question 344

habitat saturation model

Answer 344

all suitable breeding habitat filled *individuals forced to delay dispersal experimentally tested in superb fairy wrens by removal of breeding adults

Question 345

marginal habitat model

Answer 345

additional constraint is the lack of habitats of marginal quality * eliminates potential for non-breeding floaters CB= best of bad job when breeding is limited

Question 346

benefits of philopatry model

Answer 346

-intra-population variation in breeding territory quality -individuals born in high quality natal territories have intrinsic reasons to remain home

Question 347

life history hypothesis

Answer 347

emphasises role of life history in evolution of cooperative breeding cooperative breeders viewed as being on the K end of the r-K continuum

Question 348

K end of continuum

Answer 348

delayed maturity, high adult survival, small clutch size, low reproductive rate, low dispersal rate

Question 349

kin selection and CB

Answer 349

helping may increase production on non-descendant kin helpers must be closely related to breeders explain 55% of CB in birds

Question 350

enhanced survivorship

Answer 350

-helping may increase survivorship until breeding is possible *large group for defending territory, finding food, detecting predators -heloing may be form of rent payment to avoid expulsion from territory

Question 351

territorial inheritance

Answer 351

helpers may inherit territory from breeders or may be able to bud-off a section of territory

Question 352

coalition formation

Answer 352

larger groups able to retain territory, increasing fitness of all group members

Question 353

future mate acquisition

Answer 353

if males are in short supply, secondary males may be waiting to become primary males

Question 354

CB- pied kingfisher

Answer 354

-primary helper is related to breeding pair -secondary helper is unrelated *ties to form bond with breeding female s *48% of secndary males mate this way

Question 355

theories of lek evolution

Answer 355

6 THEORIES: -hotshot -hotspot -female preference -reduced predation -black hole -kin selection

Question 356

promiscuity

Answer 356

-mating systems without pair bond formation -brief encounters between individuals -single or multiple matings -males often indiscriminate -females should still be choosy *good genes

Question 357

scramble competition promiscuity

Answer 357

-when females are widely scattered, males compete to find and mate first with females -horseshoe crabs mate in extreme breeding assemblages a few nights a year *males in good condition arrive attached to females *males in bad condition act as satellites

Question 358

promiscuity and male influence

Answer 358

-male benefits if female doesn't mate with other males -nuptial gifts can influence female behaviour -sperm competition very important with multiple matings

Question 359

Leks definition

Answer 359

-aggregations where males defend small display territories -displays typically energetically expensive and elaborate

Question 360

promiscuous mating system

Answer 360

no pair bonds males provide no parental care females only gain sperm

Question 361

lek example

Answer 361

-mammals around 12 species: ungulates, pinnipeds, bats -birds around 150: waders, grouse, hummingbirds, cotingas, manakins, birds of paradise, kakapo -marine iguana -similar systems in fish, amphins & insects; only recently refered to as leks

Question 362

white-bearded manakin leks

Answer 362

-males each defend a sapling and bare patch of ground they have cleared *70 display areas in 150m2 *display: rapid perch change, snapping wings -female choses male, mates and leaves -alpha male, number 1 male on lek has way over 70% of matings -quite long lived, so alpha one year likely to be alpha again next year

Question 363

hotspot hypothesis

Answer 363

-males aggregate where they are most likely to encounter females -where there are large numbers of females, find large numbers of males -driven by female distribution -males are conforming to an IFD driven by female distribution

Question 364

IFD

Answer 364

=ideal free distribution

Question 365

hotspot hypothesis examples

Answer 365

-walruses wait near feeding areas -male New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats form singing roosts close to communal roosts -females have very large foraging ranges, but always return to the communal day roosts

Question 366

hotshot hypothesis

Answer 366

leks from around alpha male subordinate males are making the best of a bad job cluster around hotshot male hoping to get an occasional copulation best place to be is right next to the most attractive male

Question 367

female preference hypothesis

Answer 367

-males form a group to stimulate females -fmelaes may not breed until they have 'shopped around' -if female sees couple of attractive males displaying, unlikely to mate with them as can't compare across range of males -males forded to aggregate to allow females to 'check out the talent' -really large leks should be the most successful

Question 368

black hole model

Answer 368

also called female harassment model -females go to leks, because when on them they encounter older more experienced males that won't harass them -use leks as shelter -no preference for lek position or male quality

Question 369

kin selection and leks

Answer 369

-the evolution of characteristics which favour the survival and reproduction of close relatives -individuals displaying on shared leks or leks in close proximity to one another, are sometimes related -but on most leks, males are unrelated

Question 370

uganda kob

Answer 370

perfectly linear relationship between lek size and females visiting -contradicts female preference hypothesis -if correct, we would expect small leks to have almost no visits

Question 371

topi

Answer 371

are females harassed less on leks? oestrus female topi chased most when on leks contradicts black hole hypothesis

Question 372

ruffs

Answer 372

-leks located near pools where females go to feed *supposts hotspot hypothesis -within leks, spatially structured *subordinates close to alpha male have higher fitness *supports hotshot hypothesis

Question 373

behaviour

Answer 373

everything an animal does horses and dogs can read human facial expressions

Question 374

innate behaviour

Answer 374

that which the animal in born to perform, sometimes refered to as instinctive

Question 375

learned behaviour

Answer 375

that which develops as the animal grows and gathers experience -caveat: pften no hard and fast distinction between learned and innate

Question 376

paedomorphisis

Answer 376

retaining juvenile characteristics in adulthoodh

Question 377

behaviours: why them happen

Answer 377

-often have a trigger e.g. fixed action patterns occur in response to a sign stimulus *sign stimulus -> releasing mechanism ->FAP -releasing mechanism isa neural pathway -fixed action pattern (FAP) is behavioural response -sometimes in the wild mother who lost cubs adopt other baby animals (nurture response)

Question 378

example - sexual attraction in sticklebacks

Answer 378

-tinbergen experiment -different male shape and colour configurations to determine what females were responding to -females respond to red underside, not whole male -so males red belly is the sign stimulus

Question 379

geese egg retrieval

Answer 379

-sight of displaced egg triggers retrieval behaviour -this behaviour can be triggered by a vairiety of objects -anything 'egg like' gooses will take to nest

Question 380

Human Induced Rapid Environmental Change (HIREC)

Answer 380

habitat: change/loss/fragmentation invasive/exotic species: predators, pathogens, competitiors human harvesting/disturbance: eco-tourism, fisheries pollution: noise, vsiual, chemical climate change

Question 381

HIREC ecological traps

Answer 381

turtles going into road tree frog eating fairlylight because it looks like prey item; beetle flies laying eggs on glass thinking its water

Question 382

HIREC pests?

Answer 382

-lionfihs invasive in Atlantic Ocean *impossibl to contain without natural predator

Question 383

cane toads

Answer 383

introduced to australia, but eat everything anything that eats them dies toad flavoured sausage with nausea inducing chemical introduced to environment so animals eat them and develop aversion to toads

Question 384

signal detection theory

Answer 384

ability to differentiate between important stimuli and random noise

Question 385

individual heterogeneity

Answer 385

personality undertand better if we compare animals to how humans feel on a continuum

Question 386

personality is related to

Answer 386

a. group living b. dispersal and migration c. reproducitve succes d. response to environmental pertubation e. risk of predation/parasitism f. interspecific interactions g. competition h. habitat use and so on (ubiquitous)

Question 387

temperament

Answer 387

traits affect survival and evolution behavioural syndromes different traits of particular behaviours

Question 388

water striders

Answer 388

-hyper-aggressive male try to mate with everything; male, female, split couples, dead insects they should be eating etc -aggressive females: prey capture, web building, colony defence -docile females; parental care

Question 389

behavioural syndromes

Answer 389

-suites of correlated behaviours expressed either within a given behavioural context or between different contexts -e.g. bold indivuals, more aggressive, solitary, active, show less parental care, live short lives and have low immunity

Question 390

sociality

Answer 390

-to some, refers specifically to animals which form societies -to others, everything is in some sense social -in this instance, social animals are those that live in groups -can call any group of animals, including humans, a swarm

Question 391

social aggregations

Answer 391

-true social aggregations usually invlve social attraction -animals in social aggregations must be able to communicate - need to be in sensory proximity -not the same as resource-based aggregations *where, if gven resource is clumped in space and time, animals that require that resource are as well

Question 392

different social aggregations

Answer 392

-things occur on a continuum -facultative sociality : associate socially when needed e.g. cheetahs, sometimes brothers work together even though they are typically solitary -obligate sociality: associate socially throughout life -many species move along this continuum at different stages of life

Question 393

other social continuum

Answer 393

free entry : restricted entry -decision on whether to accept new member to group *may be due to relatedness etc -starlings and sparrows *in some cases, newcomers have to join at bottom of pecking order

Question 393

hering

Answer 393

spend entire life in close proximity if isolated, die

Question 394

changers

Answer 394

- many species change their degree of sociality as they age, or across different seasons -e.g. many fish highly social as juveniles, but become increasingly solitary with age *also seen in crustaceans -others, social as adult except in breeding season when sexes, typically, seggregate

Question 395

locusts

Answer 395

-dramatic shift from being almost entirely solitary to being gregarious -transition caused by tickling? *hormonal cascade *massive physiological changes *brain size increases *start producing pheromone

Question 396

advantages of group living

Answer 396

-protection against predations -increased foraginf efficiency -reproductive success -energy/resource conservation

Question 397

finding food in groups

Answer 397

1.with more individuals, groups can search an area more efficiently 2. the group acts as an 'information centre' and comprises the collective info of group members

Question 398

producers and scroungers

Answer 398

an example of game theory should you go out to look for food, or let someone else do it?

Question 399

sailfish

Answer 399

surround sardines injure them by slashing group sailfish groups mainatin high attack frequency left/right handedness dependent on worn-ness of bill

Question 400

co-operative foraging orcas

Answer 400

-biggest species of dolphin -hint seals together -seal makes raft to protect themselves from waves -orcas push raft so seal is no longer protected -orca blows bubbles to disorientate seal

Question 401

cooperative hunting

Answer 401

ability to catch larger prey hyenas, high catch rate but loose prey to bigger predators army ants band together to break pupae of pupating insect

Question 402

wild dogs

Answer 402

-optimum group size for catching largest prey -1-2 individuals = fawn thompsons gazelle -4 individuals = adult thompsons gazelle -6 individuals can take down an adult wildebeest

Question 403

antipredation benefits of group living

Answer 403

-mnay eyes hypothesis -reduced encounter rate *simple clumping of prey distribution *selfish herd -reduce predator success *vigilance *dilution effect *confusion *predator-predator interference *mobbing, cooperative defence

Question 404

selfish herd theory

Answer 404

each individual tries to reduce its own domain of danger put another individual in the way to protect yourself

Question 405

group structure

Answer 405

-different positions bring different pay-offs -safest place is centre of group *but central individuals get less food -so if hungry, move to front to get food, if not, fall back to be protected

Question 406

many eyes hypothesis

Answer 406

as group size increases, members can decrease their own vigilance without increasing risk of attack -falcon can get 1 pigeon when by themselves, but as group size increase, can't get close

Question 407

predator confusion

Answer 407

-encountering large group of animals can cause sensory overload -predator success rate drops as prey group size increases -when encountering large group, predators appear to be indecisive, hesitation allows prey to escape -only works if all prey look the same

Question 408

costs of group living

Answer 408

competition increased risk of parasitism and disease increased opportunity of reproductive interference/suppression conspicuousness

Question 409

collective behaviours

Answer 409

-phenomena that result from social interactions among individuals -governed by principle of self organisation -behaviour of small components linked to functioning of dynamic group level properties

Question 410

starling collective behaviours

Answer 410

-swarm for protection against predators -individuals in group seem to act in unison -turn togehter, move as one -each agent adopts simple rules -created by watching neighbour

Question 411

ant trail following

Answer 411

-after finding food, ant migrates to nest leaving pheromones behind -migrates betwee nest and food, each time building up more pheromone -other ants pick up trail to food source

Question 412

lane formation

Answer 412

-humans walking on same side they drive on -ants pick a side to walk on and stick to it -don't bump into each other

Question 413

zonal rules of interaction

Answer 413

-local focus: interact with a few near neighbours 1. zone of repiulsion (too close) 2. zone of orientation: move in same direction to stay with them 3. zone of attraction: too far away, so move closer (speed up to catch up)

Question 414

zone sizes

Answer 414

-state and species dependant -highily social species, more tolerant to high packing density *sardines, herring, smaller zone of repulsion, largr zone of attraction -hungry animal may enact large zone of repulsion and small (or no) zone of allignement -fearful animals may enact a large zone of allignment and small zone of repulsion

Question 415

examples of animals using zones

Answer 415

-individual animals respond to nearest neighbours -wave of information spreads through group -information speed typically > individuals

Question 416

self-organised groups

Answer 416

-have to make collective decisions bases of this : a. interacting individuals b. variation c. amplification d. positive and negative feedback -more leaders, more individuals will follw what leaders do *rely on decision of multiple individuals

Question 417

quorum

Answer 417

only follow when a threshold number of leaders has been exceeded

Question 418

leadership

Answer 418

-in caribou etc, experienced animals lead others through habitat -don't 'shoot the leader' as other individuals will become displaced

Question 419

consensus building

Answer 419

timing & direction if group spilts, all may lose benefits of group membership increase in activity prior to move = active recruitment

Question 420

swarm intelligence SI

Answer 420

1. individuals independently acquire information 2. info combined and processed through social interaction 3. cognitive problem solved in way that cannot be implemented by isolated individuals - wisdom of the crowd -differential experience of individuals across groups -animals at edge detect change and info spread through group