1
Q
what are the 5 types of biological molecules?
A
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids
ATP
2
Q
what do all biological molecules contain?
A
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
3
Q
what are biological molecules?
A
all the molecules used to construct living organisms
4
Q
what could biological molecules contain?
A
nitrogen
phosphorus
sulfur
5
Q
what are the different types of carbohydrates?
A
monosaccharides (single)
disaccharides (double)
polysaccharides (many)
6
Q
what are the 3 types of monosaccharides?
A
hexose sugars
pentose sugars
triose sugars
7
Q
what are properties of hexose sugars?
A
energy source
sweet
soluble
8
Q
what are examples of hexose sugars?
A
glucose (found in plants and animals)
fructose (found in plants)
galactose (found in animals)
9
Q
what is the formula for hexose sugars?
A
C6 H12 O6
10
Q
where is alpha glucose found?
A
plants and animals
11
Q
where is beta glucose found?
A
plants
12
Q
examples of pentose sugars (include chemical formula)
A
C5 H10 05 - Ribose sugar
C5 H10 04 - Deoxyribose
13
Q
what are the properties of pentose sugar?
A
they are used for structural purposes
14
Q
what is the chemical formula for triose sugars?
A
C3 H6 03
15
Q
what are the properties of triose sugars?
A
they are part of respiration
16
Q
what are the 3 disaccharides?
A
sucrose
lactose
maltose
17
Q
what is sucrose made of?
A
alpha glucose + fructose
18
Q
what is lactose made of?
A
alpha glucose + galactose
19
Q
what is maltose made of?
A
alpha glucose + alpha glucose
20
Q
what are the properties of disaccharides?
A
they are sweet and soluble and used in respiration
21
Q
how are disaccharides formed?
A
through condensation reactions
22
Q
what is the name of the bonds formed from disaccharides
A
1-4 glycosidic bonds
23
Q
where is maltose found?
A
in animals and plants
24
Q
where is lactose found?
A
in animals
25
where is sucrose found?
in plants
26
how does a condensation reaction work?
the hydroxyl group from one glucose and the hydrogen from the other join to form water, the carbon 1 and carbon 4 are then bonded together by the remaining oxygen - this is known as a glycosidic bond
27
how would you separate a disaccharide into 2 monosaccharides?
add 1 molecule of water, this is known as hydrolysis
28
what are polysaccharides?
polymers with 1000s on subunits on monosaccharides
29
how are polysaccharides made?
repeated condensations reactions (many 1 - 4 glycosidic bond)
30
are polysaccharides sugars?
no, they are not sweet or soluble
31
what are 3 examples of polysaccharides and where are they found?
starch - plants
glycogen - animals
cellulose - cell wall
32
what is starch made of?
amylose and amylopectin
33
how is amylose formed?
1000s of condensation reactions between alpha glucose with 1-4 glycosidic bond, coiled springs are formed
34
what is the structure of amylose?
alpha helix structure - long alpha glucose polymer chain
35
what are the properties of amylose?
compact - can store lots of alpha glucose in a small space which is used for respiration to transfer energy (ATP)
Insoluble - can store lots of starch without affecting water potential
36
how is amylopectin formed?
condensation reaction between alpha glucose, has 1-4 glycosidic bonds
37
amylopectin has branches of ........... glycosidic bonds
1-6 glycosidic bonds
38
what structure does amylopectin have? and what causes it?
1-4 cause helix structure, (coiled springs) 1-6 causes the branched structure
39
what is the benefit of the branched structure of amylopectin?
branches increase surface area. there are more terminal ends so the rate of glycosidic bond hydrolysis is greater and so it can release more alpha glucose per second
40
what is glycogen?
the storage of polysaccharide in animals
41
what is the structure of glycogen?
It’s structure has many branches and many more 1-6 glycosidic bonds (also has 1-4 glycosidic bonds ) so it has far more terminal ends so that the release of alpha glucose per second is greater as the energy requirements for humans is very large (rate of hydrolysis is greater)
42
where is cellulose found?
plant cell walls
43
what are some properties of cellulose?
it has slow decomposition
it is mechanically very strong (because of the 1-4 glycosidic bonds of beta glucose)
44
what are glycogen and cellulose examples of?
polysaccharides
45
what is a polymer?
molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together
46
what is the structure of cellulose?
made up of 1-4 glycosidic bonds
made of beta glucose (in order for the C1 and C4 to bond, one of the glucose molecules need to flip 180 degrees)
it is held together by hydrogen bonds
is made of long straight unbranched chains
47
describe the cellulose chains
the cellulose chains run parallel to each other
The actual chain has 1-4 bonds but the 2 chains are linked together by hydrogen bonds - known as cross bridges
the chains are very strong due to the hydrogen bonds
48
how is a cell wall made?
100s of cellulose chains make a microfibril, 100s of microfibrils make a fibril, fibrils then knit together to form a cell wall
49
what is a monomer?
the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
50
what are some examples of lipids?
fats and oils
phospholipids
waxes
steroids
51
where are oils found and what is its state and room temp?
oils are found in plants and they are liquid at room temperature
52
where are fats found and what is its state at room temp?
fats are found in animals and they are solid at room temp
53
what are the uses of lipids?
insulators (reduce thermal transfer, found under the skin)
energy store
oil on skin and hair to keep it supple
lubricant in joints
hormones
insulate nerve cells
54
are lipids soluble or insoluble?
insoluble
55
what are lipids made of?
fatty acids and glycerol
56
what 3 groups are in a fatty acid?
carboxylic acid (COOH), hydrocarbon chain (CH2)n (length of hydrocarbon chain can vary), methyl end (CH3)
57
what does saturated mean?
single C-C bond
58
how does hydrogen bonding affect the melting point of a lipid?
less hydrogens means less hydrogen bonding which means it is less stable and therefore has a lower melting point
59
what is a fatty acid with 2 C-C double bonds known as?
a polyunsaturated fatty acid
60
what is a fatty acid with 1 C-C double bond know as?
a monounsaturated fatty acid
61
what is a triglyceride made up of?
1 glycerol bonded to 3 fatty acids
62
what bond forms from a condensation reaction when a triglyceride is formed?
ester bonds
63
what is needed to form a triglyceride?
3 condensation reactions
3 ester bonds
64
what is released when a triglyceride is formed?
3 molecules of water
65
what is needed to hydrolyse a triglyceride?
3 water molecules
66
How many monomers do we end up with if we fully hydrolyse a triglyceride?
4 monomers - 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
67
how is a diglyceride formed?
2 fatty acids + 1 glycerol (because there is a hydroxyl group not bonded to a fatty acid, it may react with other molecules)
68
how is a monoglyceride formed?
1 fatty acid + 1 glycerol
69
how is a phospholipid formed?
from a diglyceride and a phosphate ion (PO4^2-) reacted with the hydroxyl group
70
how does glycerol react in terms of water?
hydrophilic - water loving, water soluble
71
how does fatty acids react in terms of water?
hydrophobic - water hating, insoluble
72
Why is a cell membrane formed from fatty acids and phosphate ions?
The key components of the membrane, called phospholipids, are molecules that contain both hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails and hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate heads. In a cell membrane, we need lipids, so the cell doesn’t dissolve but it needs water soluble parts as well so that the cells do not separate out
73
what is the biological test for lipids?
the emulsion test - combine the sample and ethanol in a test tube and shake, add water and shake again, if there is a cloudy white suspension lipids are present
74
what does an overlap in standard deviation mean?
difference is not significant
75
what are proteins made of?
amino acids (made of C H O N and sometimes S)
76
how many naturally occurring amino acids are there?
20
77
what are some functions of proteins?
enzymes - amylase
transport - haemoglobin
movement - actin and myosin
cell recognition - antigens
channels - membrane proteins
structure - collagen and keratin
hormones - insulin
protection - antibodies
78
What is an amino acid made up of?
An amine group, a carboxylic acid group, a central carbon and a variable group (named R - it differs with different amino acids)
79
what bond is formed between 2 amino acids?
a peptide bond
80
What reaction occurs to form a peptide bond?
a condensation reaction
81
where does the peptide bond form?
between the carbon from the carboxylic acid group on one amino acid to the nitrogen of the amine group on the other
82
how Is a dipeptide formed?
between 2 amino acids
83
how is a polypeptide formed?
from 1000s of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds
84
what is the primary structure of a protein?
the specific order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
85
what is the secondary structure of a protein?
the folding of the polypeptide chain, to form a either alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet structure
86
how is the secondary structure of a protein held?
by hydrogen bonds formed between the oxygen remaining on the carboxylic end and the hydrogen remaining on the amine end of the different amino acids, this holds the structure in place
87
what will happen to amino acids at high temperature?
it will cause hydrogen bonds too break as they are individually weak, and the formation to change meaning the enzyme is denatured
88
what is the tertiary structure of proteins?
its the folding of the folds to form a specific 3D structure e.g. enzymes
89
What determines how the folding will fold again in tertiary structures?
the R groups - these form the tertiary structure bonds
90
What are the 5 types of bonding between different R groups?
hydrogen bonding between R groups
polar-polar bonds form between 2 soluble R groups
non polar-non polar bonds form between 2 insoluble R groups
ionic bonding between R groups
disulphide bonds between 2 sulphurs
91
what is the quaternary structure of a protein?
2 or more polypeptide chains bonded together and this can also include an inorganic prosthetic group e.g. a copper ion
92
What are the 2 types of quaternary protein structures we can have?
Globular (round shaped)
Fibrous proteins (collagen) - used for more structural proteins
93
what is haemoglobin made of?
4 polypeptide chains
(2 alpha chains
2 beta chains)
each chain contains a prosthetic group with one Fe3+ ion (iron ion)
94
what is the food test for starch
iodine: turns from an orange brown to a blue black
95
what is the food test for sugars
Benedicts: from light blue to (green to brick red depending on how much sugar there is)
96
what is the food test for lipids
ethanol: from colourless to a cloudy emulsion
97
what is the food test for protein
biuret: from blue to lilac purple
98
what is chromatography?
separating out small molecules based on mass and solubility in solvent
99
what is electrophoresis
electrical current to separate out amino acids and also larger proteins and DNA
Biology
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