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From Flashcardlet > Cells and Heredity Test 3 > Flashcards

Cells and Heredity Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Autotrophs

A

producers, make own organic molecules; photoautotrophs- are capable of photosynthesis

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2
Q

Heterotrophs

A

consumers, obtain organic molecules from other sources

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3
Q

Photosynthesis equ

A

6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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4
Q

what gets oxidized in photosynthesis?

A

water to oxygen

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5
Q

what gets reduced in photosynthesis?

A

carbon to glucose

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6
Q

is photosynthesis spontaneous or nonspontaneous

A

nonspontaneous

positive free energy

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7
Q

Chloroplasts

A

eukaryotic organelles were once independent cells like mitochondria; primitive bacteria

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8
Q

grana

A

stacks in chloroplasts

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9
Q

Thylakoids

A

individual pancakes in stacks w/ enzymes and proteins, parallel to mitochondria membrane

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10
Q

2 processes in PS

A

light reaction and calvin cycle

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11
Q

where does PS take place

A

chloroplasts

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12
Q

where do light reactions take place

A

thylakoids

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13
Q

where does calvin cycle take place

A

stroma

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14
Q

what does light reactions produce

A

ATP and NADPH

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15
Q

what happens in light reactions

A

Solar energy converted to chemical energy

Light absorbed by chlorophyll; water split H and O, NADP+ reduced to NADPH

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16
Q

chlorophyll

A

in thylakoid membranes, has hydrophobic tail that is imbedded in membrane

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17
Q

how does chlorophyll release energy

A
  • When struck by photon- boosts one e- to excited state, when e- drops down, it releases energy and excites another adjacent e-, like the wave
  • Electrons tumble down an electron transport chain
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18
Q

what does calvin cycle need

A

ATP, NADPH & CO2

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19
Q

what does calvin cycle make

A

CH2O

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20
Q

what are the 3 parts to calvin cycle

A

part 1- carbon fixation
part 2- reduction by NADPH and G3P
part 3- regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate

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21
Q

part 1- carbon fixation

A

3CO2 at a time
o CO2 gets fixed into organic material
o CO2 + ribulose biphosphate (RuBPs 5-carbon) 6-carbon  2 s-carbons
o Rubisco- enzyme, most abundant protein in a plant cell, adds CO2 to organic

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22
Q

rubisco

A

enzyme, most abundant protein in a plant cell, adds CO2 to organic

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23
Q

Part 2- reduction by NADPH to G3P

A

o some ATP is spent to phosphorylate 3-phospahte, becomes 1,3 biphospahte
o NADPH oxidized to reduce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

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24
Q
  • Part 3- regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate
A

with 3ATP, 5 of the G3P used, 1 is not

o 5 G3P changed to 3 RuBP5

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25
Q

what goes in PS

A

3CO2, 9 ATP, 6 NADPH

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26
Q

what comes out PS

A

1 G3P, 9 ATP, 6 NADP+

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27
Q

what is needed to make 1 glucose

A

2 turns of the calvin cycle, 6 CO2, 18ATP, 12 NADPH

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28
Q

how is a photosynthetic cell self sufficient

A

it requires 18 ATP but CR makes 32 ATP

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29
Q

heredity definition

A

the transmission of traits

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30
Q

asexual

A

sole parent, binary fission, exact copies, rapid, energy efficient, genetically stable

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31
Q

sexual

A

2 parents, meiosis, unique offspring, diversity allows for adaptation, beneficial genes are reproduced while harmful ones are removed from gene pool

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32
Q

diploid

A

2 sets of chromosomes, somatic cells, 2n, 46 in humans

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33
Q

haploid

A

1 set of chromosomes, sex cells (gametes), n, 23 in humans

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34
Q

karyotype

A

arrangement of chromosome pairs by size

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35
Q

autosomes

A

22 pairs, body cells

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36
Q

nonsister chromatid

A

chromatid in homologous pair from mom and dad

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37
Q

Meiosis

A

converts diploids to haploids, produces sex cells (egg and sperm)

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38
Q

interphase

A

replicates chromosoems

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39
Q

Meiosis I- first cell division

A

• pair has been separated to 2 different cells
• goes through prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis
o prophase I- homologous pairs match up= SYNAPSIS
 stick together w/ zipper like proteins
 “cross over” can occur”

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40
Q

what happens in prophase 1

A

homologous pairs match up= SYNAPSIS

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41
Q

synapsis definition

A

homologous pairs match up and cross over can occur

42
Q

Meiosis II- second cell division

A
  • Chromatids separate

* goes through prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis

43
Q

how is there genetic variation in meiosis (4 things)

A
  • independent assortment- random arrangement on metaphase plate, 50/50 left or right
  • random fertilization- 223 x 223 = trillions of chances
  • crossing over between pairs, called chiasma
  • Possible combinations = 2n n=number of chromosomes eg. 4 chromosomes= 16 possibilities
44
Q

independent assortment

A

random arrangement on metaphase plate, 50/50 left or right

45
Q

chiasma

A

crossing over btwn pairs

46
Q

blending hypothesis

A

offspring is a mixed blend of traits from both parents (like mixing paint)

47
Q

particulate hypothesis

A

there are discreet factors (genes) that are expressed per generation

48
Q

gregor mendel

A

father of genetics, used pea plants

SEE STUDY GUIDE

49
Q

Alleles

A

alternative versions of a gene; each parent supplies 1 allele for any given character

50
Q

If 2 alleles differ at locus….

A

the dominant allele determines the organisms phenotype

51
Q

alleles separate during…

A

gamete formation

52
Q

Law of Segregation

A

2 alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation and end in different gametes

53
Q

homozygous

A

2 identical alleles, PP, pp

54
Q

heterozygous

A

2 different alleles, Pp

55
Q

hemizygous

A

only one copy, MALES are this because they only have 1 X, and 1 Y (w/ no alleles)

56
Q

Genotype

A

actual genes; the letters: dominant is capital, recessive is lowercase: PP, Pp, pp,

57
Q

phenotype

A

physical characteristics, description in words

58
Q

Dependent assortment

A

hybrids transmit their alleles in the same combinations in which the alleles were inherited from P generation; YR, yr, YR, yr, ratio 3:1

59
Q

Independent assortment

A

two pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other, YR, Yr, yR, yr, ratio 9:3:3:1 with heterozygous parents

60
Q

D.A. ratio

A

3:1

61
Q

I.A. ratio

A

9:3:3:1

62
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently of other pairs of alleles; because of metaphase line up and crossing over, chromosomes assort independently

63
Q

3 degrees of dominance

A

complete, incomplete, codominant

64
Q

complete dominance

A

heterozygous- homozygous dominant, AA, Aa, aa

65
Q

incomplete dominance

A

blend of parents, red+white=pink, CRCR+CWCW=CRCW, if you cross these, you get 25% red, 25% white, 50% pink

66
Q

codominance

A
  • two alleles affect phenotype in separate ways
67
Q

2 examples of codomiance

A

Blood type and MN antigens, could have: MM, MN, NN;

ABO blood groups, type A= IAIA or IAi, B= IBIB or IBi, AB= IAIB, O= i, no carbohydrates on surface

68
Q

universal donor

A

type O

69
Q

universal accpetor

A

type AB

70
Q

epistasis

A

gene at one locus (location) alters phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus (location)

71
Q

epistasis example

A

coat color
gene for actual color and gene that allows pigment to be deposited; example: mouse
B- black b- brown C-deposition c-no deposition
Black-BBCC, BbCc, BbCC
brown- bbCC, bbCc
white- anything with cc

Chance of white mouse= ¼ because its epistatic, regardless of BB,Bb,bb

72
Q

draw pedigrees

A

draw pedigrees

73
Q

challenges of gene therapy

A
  • Best way to deliver normal gene? Virus
  • Controlling normal gene insertion into genome, what happens if it’s in wrong place?
  • Proper regulation of normal gene
  • Long terms side effects? How stable is this approach?
  • Ethical issues
74
Q

dominantly inherited diseases (3)

A

Huntington’s Disease, Dwarfism, extra digits

75
Q

Huntington’s

A

lethal dominant allele, degenerative disease of the nervous system, 1/10,000 people have this disease, symptoms don’t begin showing until 35-45 years old

76
Q

Cystic Fibrosis

A

1/25 European Americans have this; excess mucus in lungs, shorten life span
Normal allele codes for chloride transport across the membrane; contains phenlyalolene
Mutant genes reduces the transport of chloride across the membrane, Phe is deleted

77
Q

Chromosome theory of inheritance

A

Sutton and Boveri 1902; heritable factors (genes) have specific loci

78
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan

A

1907- skeptical of Mendel, ended up discovering that genes are on chromosomes
Used fruit flies, searched through hundreds to find a mutant: male with white eyes, crossed this male with wild type female, F1 had all red eyes, F2 had 3 red for every 1 white, but only in MALES
Found that eye color is linked to X chromosome, DISCOVERY- first heritable factor that is localized o a specific chromosome

79
Q

Sex determining region of Y chromosome

A

SRY gene- determines if testes develop

80
Q

what develops during the first 2 months of gonad development

A

ovaries; testes do not develop until Y chromosome is introduced with SRY gene

81
Q

what is aneuploidy and what causes it?

A

having extra or fewer chromosomes that normal, caused by nondisjunction during Meiosis

82
Q

sex linked genes

A

genes located on either sex chromosome- usually refers to gene on X

83
Q

Griffth

A

vaccine for pneumonia- inserted it into mice with heat killed strain and nonpathogenic strain, saw a transformation of the heat killed bacteria to lethal bacteria: DNA exchanged

84
Q

Avery, MacLeod, McCarty

A

identified genetic material by fractioning cells and inserting Protease (inhibits protein) DNase (inhibits DNA) RNase (inhibits RNA) and inserted each one into genetic material and looked at the transformation; found that it was DNA because DNase caused inhibition

85
Q

Hershey and Chase

A

infected bacteria, one in radioactive sulfur and other in radioactive phosphorus to label them, inserted and found that proteins do not enter cell, meaning that DNA does and DNA is what causes transformations during infections

86
Q

Chargaff

A

used paper chromatography and UV spectroscopy to measure base pair amounts in DNA; found that A and T are = G and C are = which means BASE PAIRS (purines=pyrimidnes) (A+G=T+C)

87
Q

Waston and Crick

A

discovered that DNA was a right handed double helix that is antiparallel (5’-3’) and complementary with their base pairs (found by Chargaff) won Nobel peace prize 1962

88
Q

Messelson and Stahl

A

proved that semi conservative replication was correct by growing e. coli in NH4Cl, grew first in heavy nitrogen 15N and then light 14N, then measured the weight after 2 replications
Found: after fist replication both were ½ parent ½ new and after 2nd, 2 were ½ and 1/2; 2 were all new

89
Q

Semi conservative replication

A

2 daughter strands would be identical, ½ parent and ½ new

90
Q

conservative replication

A

2 daughter strands would be different one all parents and one all daughter

91
Q

how is DNA replicated

A

Replication- DNA melt->separates->primase- RNA primer attaches and makes complementary strand-> then DNA polymerase finishes the replication at the 3’ end of the primase

92
Q

where does transcription occur and what is it?

A

in nucleus; makes mRNA from DNA

93
Q

where does translation occur and what is it?

A

on ribosome either in cytoplasm or on ER; makes protein from mRNA

94
Q

what is the difference btwn central dogma in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Pro- both occur in whole cell because there is no nucleus; means they can be simultaneous

95
Q

RNA (differences from DNA)

A

sugar is ribose, single stranded, uracil instead of thymine

96
Q

DNA template strand

A

the only one DNA strand is transcribed into mRNA

97
Q

mRNA

A

messenger, transcribed from DNA and translated into proteins

98
Q

rRNA

A

ribosomal; acts as a catalyst for forming the peptide bond btwn carboxyl and amino ends

99
Q

codons

A

3 base pairs that code for an amino acid

100
Q

start condon

A

AUG

101
Q

end codons

A

UAA
UAG
UGA

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