Chapter 10

Question 1

in this system, the universe is a series of concentric spheres-spheres one inside the other. Earth is fixed, or motionless, at the center of these spheres. The spheres are made of a crystal-like, transparent substance in which the heavenly bodies, pure orbs of light, are embedded. This system is called geocentric because it put Earth at the center of the universe.

Answer 1

ptolemaic system

Question 2

sun-centered (usually in terms of the universe)

Answer 2

heliocentric

Question 3

this law explains why the planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines but instead continue in elliptical orbits around the sun. The law states, in mathematical terms, that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.

Answer 3

Universal Law of Gravitation

Question 4

the system of thought that is based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge. Problems can be solved using reason

Answer 4

rationalism

Question 5

a systematic procedure of collecting and analyzing evidence. It was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world. It was developed by Francis Bacon.

Answer 5

scientific method

Question 6

a doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test hypotheses or theories, a process that will lead to correct general principles. Example: Newton’s laws of motion –> machine theory

Answer 6

inductive reasoning

Question 7

greatest astronomer of the antiquity. He lived in the second century A.D. in Alexandria, Egypt. He used his ideas and the ideas of Aristotle and Christianity to create a model of the universe known as the Ptolemaic system. This is what the Church believed which is why it was accepted for so long.

Answer 7

Ptolemy

Question 8

a Polish mathematician. His famous book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres was published in 1543. He felt that the geocentric system was too complicated. He believed that his heliocentric contraception of the universe was a more accurate explanation than the Ptolemaic system. He said that the planets revolved around the sun and the moon revolved around the earth. He said that the apparent movement of the sun around the earth was really caused by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis and the journey of the earth around the sun.

Answer 8

Nicholas Copernicus

Question 9

an Italian scientist that taught mathematics. He was the first European to make observations of the heavens using a telescope. He discovered mountains on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. He destroyed an aspect of the Ptolemaic system. In the Ptolemaic system, heavenly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light, but he discovered that they were made of the same material substance as Earth. He published his discoveries in The Starry Messenger in 1610. It put him under suspicions by the authorities of the Catholic Church. The Church ordered him to abandon the Copernican idea because it threatened the Church’s entire conception of the universe and seemed to contradict the Bible. The heavens were no longer a spiritual world but a world of matter, and God was no longer in a specific place.

Answer 9

Galileo Galilei

Question 10

He was born in 1642 and showed few signs of brilliance until he attended Cambridge University. He became a professor of mathematics at the university and wrote his major work, Mathematics Principles of Natural Philosophy. It is simply know as the Principia, by the first word of its Latin title. The first book of the Principia defines the three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies, as well as objects on Earth. Crucial to this argument was the universal law of gravitation. He had shown that one universal law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in the universe. This idea created a new picture of the universe. It was now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws. This world-machine concept dominated the modern worldview until the twentieth century, when Albert Einstein’s concept of relativity created a new picture of the universe. “Father of modern physics”

Answer 10

Isaac Newton

Question 11

one of the first scientists (chemist) to conduct controlled experiments. His pioneering work on the properties of gases led to Boyle’s Law. This generalization states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it.

Answer 11

Robert Boyle

Question 12

one of the most prominent female scientists of the seventeenth century. She came from an aristocratic family of England. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy. In her work, she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature.

Answer 12

Margaret Cavendish

Question 13

the most famous of the female astronomers in Germany. She received training in astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. Her chance to be a practicing astronomer came when she married Gottfried Kirch, Prussia’s foremost astronomer, and became his assistant. She made some original contributions to astronomy including the discovery of a comet. When her husband died, she applied for a position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman with no university degree, she was denied the post. Members of the Berlin Academy feared that they would set a bad example by hiring a woman. Her problems with the Berlin Academy reflect the obstacles women faced in being accepted as scientists.

Answer 13

Maria Winkelmann

Question 14

a seventeenth-century French philosopher. He began by thinking and writing about the doubt and uncertainty that seemed to be everywhere in the confusion of the seventeenth century. He ended with a philosophy that dominated Western thought until the twentieth century. The starting point for his new system was doubt. In his most famous work, Discourse on Method, written in 1636, he decided to set aside all that he had learned and to begin again. He emphasized the importance of his own mind and asserted that he would only accept those things that his reason said were true. He has been called the father or modern rationalism. “I think therefore I am”

Answer 14

René Descartes

Question 15

an English philosopher with a few scientific credentials who believed that instead of relying on the ideas of ancient authorities, scientists should use inductive reasoning to learn about nature. He developed the scientific method. He wanted science to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade.

Answer 15

Francis Bacon

Question 16

the intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by this French name meaning “philosopher.”

Answer 16

Philosophe

Question 17

in this separation, the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of the government limit and control each other in a system of checks and balances. By preventing any one person or group from gaining too much power, this system provides the greatest freedom and security for the state. This system of government was developed by Montesquieu.

Answer 17

separation and balance of powers

Question 18

an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law. It was built on the idea of the Newtonian world-machine. In this view, a mechanic (God) had created the universe. They believed that the world was like a clock. God was the clockmaker and had left the clock (the universe) to run without interference, according to its own natural laws.

Answer 18

deism

Question 19

a doctrine saying that the state should leave the economy alone. It means “to let (people) do (what they want)” It was created by Adam Smith. America used to have this economic system.

Answer 19

laissez-faire

Question 20

“blank mind.” This was part of John Locke’s philosophy in that he believed that every person was born with a blank mind. good experiences=good people

Answer 20

tabula rasa

Question 21

through this, an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will. Individual who wish instead to follow their own self-interests must (some believed it was voluntary) be forced to abide by the general will.

Answer 21

social contract

Question 22

the elegant drawing rooms of the upper class’s great urban houses. Enlightenment ideas spread through these. Helped the women’s rights movement

Answer 22

salon

Question 23

a seventeenth-century Englishman. His theory of knowledge greatly affected the eighteenth-century intellectuals. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa. His ideas suggested that people were molded by the experiences that came through their senses and from the surrounding world. If environments were changed and people were exposed the right influences, then people could be changed and a new society created. He believed that revolution should be allowed given the right circumstances.

Answer 23

John Locke

Question 24

He was a French noble. His analysis of the system of checks and balances through separation of powers was his most lasting contribution to political thought. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, was published in 1748. In this study of governments, he tried to use the scientific method to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings. He identified three basic kinds of government (1) republics, suitable for small states; (2) despotism, appropriate for large states; and (3) monarchies, ideal for moderate-size states.

Answer 24

Montesquieu

Question 25

the greatest figure of the Enlightenment. He was a Parisian and came from a prosperous middle-class family. He wrote an endless stream of pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and histories, which brought him both fame and wealth. He supported the religious philosophy of deism.
He believed in the separation of Church and state. His works contained satire.

Answer 25

Voltaire

Question 26

He went to the University of Paris to fulfill his father’s hopes that he would be a lawyer or pursue a career in the Church. He did neither, and became a freelance writer so that he could study and read in many subjects and languages. He remained dedicated to new ideas. His most famous contribution to the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, a 28-volume collection of knowledge that he edited. It was published between 1751 and 1772, and the purpose of the Encyclopedia was to change the general way of thinking. It became a major weapon in the philosophes’ crusade (and other revolutions) against the old French society. Many of its articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration. It also called for social, legal, and political improvements that would lead to a society that was more tolerant and more humane. It was sold to doctors, clergymen, teachers, and lawyers, thus spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Answer 26

Denis Diderot

Question 27

he made the best statement of laissez-faire in his famous work The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Like the Physiocrats, he believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters. He gave government only 3 basic roles: protecting society from invasion (the army), defending citizens from injustice (the police), and keeping up certain public works (roads and canal, that private individuals could not afford). “Founder of modern economy”

Answer 27

Adam Smith

Question 28

He wandered through France and Italy holding various jobs. Eventually he made his way to Paris, where he was introduced into the circle of philosophes. He did not like the city life, however, and often withdrew into long periods of solitude. In his Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind, he argued that people had adopted laws and government in order to preserve their private property. In the process, they had become enslaved by government. In his famous work, The Social Contract, published in 1762, he presented his concept of the social contract. Another work of his is Emile, written in the form of a novel, the work is a general discussion “on the education of the natural man.” He argues that education should foster, and not restrict, children’s natural instincts. He believed that emotions, as well as reason, were important to human development. He sought a balance between heart and mind, and emotions and reason. “Father of communism and socialism”

Answer 28

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Question 29

an English writer born in 1759. She is considered by many to be the founder of the European and American movements for women’s rights. She was largely self-educated and she earned a living as a governess until she moved to a writing career and worked for a magazine publisher. She continued to develop her ideas on education and women’s rights. She married the philosopher William Godwin. She died after the birth of their daughter Mary Shelley who wrote Frankenstein. “Mother of Modern Feminism”

Answer 29

Mary Wollstonecraft

Question 30

an Anglican minister who started the famous religious movement, Methodism. He had a mystical experience in which “the gift of God’s grace” assured him of salvation. It led him to become a missionary to the English people to bring the “glad tidings” of salvation. He preached to the masses in open fields. He appealed especially to the lower class. His sermons often caused people to convert to Methodism. Methodism stressed the importance of hard work and encouraged behaviors that led to spiritual contentment, which took the place of political equality. After his death, Methodism became a separate Protestant group. Methodism proved that the need for spiritual experience had not been eliminated by the 18th century search for reason. Was an important figure in the Second Great Awakening.

Answer 30

John Wesley

Question 31

an artistic style that modified baroque, it was in the 1730s; it was highly secular, emphasizing, grace, charm, and gentle action. It was more emotional and sophisticated. The emotion was usually happiness and joy.

Answer 31

Rococo

Question 32

a system in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers.

Answer 32

enlightened despotism (absolutism) (Not possible to be an enlightened despot because the ideas would limit power and you would no longer be a despot) (Most “enlightened despots” did increase education and art)

Question 33

a renowned German organist as well as a composer, was the music director at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig for a time. During this time, he composed his Mass in B Minor and other works that gave him the reputation of being one of the greatest composers of all time. He perfected the baroque musical style. He wrote music for the Church.

Answer 33

Bach

Question 34

a German who spent much of his career in England. He probably best known for his religious music. His Messiah has been called a rare work that appeals immediately to everyone and yet is a masterpiece in the highest order. He perfected the baroque musical style. He wrote religious music for the Church and secular for the king.

Answer 34

Handel

Question 35

composer who spent most of his adult life as musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes. Visits to England introduced him to a world where musicians wrote for public concerts rather than princely patrons. This “liberty” led him to write two great works, The Creation and The Seasons. He wrote classical music. His music was secular and instrumental.

Answer 35

Haydn

Question 36

a child prodigy. His failure to get a regular patron to support him financially made his life miserable. He wrote music passionately. His The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni are three of the world’s greatest operas. Haydn remarked to his father, “Your son is the greatest composer known to me.” He wrote classical music. He died young and his music was secular.

Answer 36

Mozart

Question 37

one of the best educated and most cultured monarchs in the 18th century. He was well versed in the ideas of the Enlightenment and even invited Voltaire to live at his court for several years. He was a dedicated ruler. He enlarged the Prussian army (militaristic) and he kept a strict watch over the bureaucracy. He seemed quite willing to make enlightenment reforms for a time. He abolished the use of torture except in treason and murder cases. He also grated limited freedom of speech and press as well as greater religious tolerance. However, he kept Prussia’s serfdom and rigid social structure intact and avoided any additional reforms. He was the Prussian monarch during the Seven Years’ War and the War of Austrian Succession.

Answer 37

Frederick the Great (Frederick II)

Question 38

Empress of the Austrian Empire (a very diverse empire and many hated one another) who inherited the throne in 1740. She worked to centralize the Austrian Empire and strengthen the power of the state. She was not open to philosophes’ calls for reform, but she worked hard to alleviate the conditions of the serfs and increase education. She only made limited reforms.

Answer 38

Maria Theresa

Question 39

She ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. She was an intelligent women who was familiar with the works of the philosophes and seemed to favor enlightened reforms. She invited the French philosophe Denis Diderot to Russia and urged him to speak frankly, “as man to man.” He did so, outlining an ambitious program of political and financial reform. She was skeptical and thought it would be bad for her country. She did consider the idea of a new law code that would recognize the principle of the equality of all people in the eyes of the law. She never did anything though because she knew that her success depended on the support of the Russian nobility. She, like Peter the Great, wanted to westernize Russia. Peasants did not like her causing a series of revolts. She wasn’t actually Russian and her name wasn’t actually Catherine.

Answer 39

Catherine the Great (Catherine II)

Question 40

A war fought in the middle of the eighteenth century between the German kingdom of Prussia, supported by Britain, and an alliance that included Austria, France, and Russia. The war began over Silesia. Russia wanted a warm water port. William Pitt strategized for England to not divide themselves up like the French and take the French colonies. The general before William Pitt got killed.Prussia and Britain won, and their victory greatly increased their power. At the end of this war France had lost its overseas empire and Prussia and Britain became stronger and France had become weaker.

Answer 40

Seven Years’ War

Question 41

a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the Austrian throne in 1740. When the Austrian empire Charles VI died, he was succeeded by his daughter, Maria Theresa. King Frederick the II of Prussia took advantage of the succession of a woman to the throne of Austria by invading Austrian Silesia. France then entered the war against Austria. So Austria made an alliance with Great Britain. This war was fought in 3 areas of the world. In Europe, Prussia seized Silesia while France occupied the Austrian Netherlands. In the Far East, France took the Madras in India from the British. In North America, the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. After seven years of warfare, all parties were exhausted and agreed to the Treaty of Aix-la-Champelle in 1748. This treaty guaranteed the return of all occupied except Silesia to their original owners. Prussia’s refusal to return Silesia meant yet another war between Prussia and Austria.

Answer 41

War of Austrian Succession