Chapter 12 - Development over the lifespan Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
Developmental Psychology
A
• Study changes in biological, physical, psychological, & behavioural processes over time
2
Q
Relative contributions of genes and environment?
A
• Critical & Sensitive Periods
3
Q
Critical period =
A
age where experiences must occur
4
Q
Sensitive periods =
A
optimal age range
5
Q
Developmental Research Designs
A
- cross sectional
- longitudinal
- sequential
6
Q
Cross-sectional
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• Compare different ages at same time
Measure different ages at same time:
- 2020: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30 year-olds
7
Q
Issues with cross-sectional
A
- Different cohorts grew up in different time periods
- Different experiences, cultural changes, environmental changes
• Technology; growing up in depression; access to higher
education
8
Q
Longitudinal
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• Test same cohort at different times
Test same cohort at different times:
• 2000: survey 10 year-olds
• 2010: 20 year-olds
• 2020: 30 year-olds
9
Q
Issues with longitudinal research
A
- Time-consuming
- People drop out
- Changes generalizable to all people, just this group?
10
Q
Sequential
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• Test several cohorts as they age
Test several cohorts as they age:
• 2000: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds
• 2010: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds
• 2020: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds
11
Q
What sequential research help avoid ? T6
A
Helps avoid the issues of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
12
Q
Germinal Stage
A
- Conception to 2 weeks
- Sperm +ovum (egg cell) → zygote (fertilized egg)
- Zygote attaches to uterine wall 10 – 14 days after conception
13
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Embryonic Stage
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• 2nd - 8th week post conception • Life-support structures: - Placenta - Umbilical cord • Organs and systems begin to form
14
Q
Fetal Stage
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- 9 weeks post conception
- Muscles strengthen, systems, develop
- Eyes open by 24 weeks
- reaches age of viability by 28 weeks
15
Q
Prenatal development involves the following 3 stages
A
- germinal stage
- germinal stage
- Fetal stage
16
Q
Genetics and sex determination
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- 23rd chromosome = X or Y
- Females = XX
- Males = XY
17
Q
Y chromosome contains TDF
testis determining factor
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- Initiates development of testes
* Testes secrete androgens
18
Q
Critical period for TDF ?
A
6-8 weeks
• Insufficient androgen activity = female
19
Q
Teratogens
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• Environmental agents that may cause abnormal fetal development
20
Q
Sexually transmitted diseases
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• Can pass from mother to fetus and produce brain damage, blindness, and/or deafness
21
Q
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
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- Involve a range of mild to severe cognitive, behavioural, and physical deficits caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol
- FAS involves a cluster of severe developmental abnormalities
22
Q
Children who suffer from fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)look different?
A
YES
23
Q
Children who suffer from fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) have brains that are
A
underdeveloped compared with
those of normal children
24
Q
Maternal malnutrition
A
• Miscarriage, premature birth, stillbirth, impaired brain development
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Maternal stress (stress hormones)
• Premature birth, infant irritability, attentional deficits
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William James (1890) Suggested that the newborn’s world is
* “Buzzing, blooming confusion”
| * That is, that they are passive, disorganized, and have an empty mind
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Was William James right ?
NO,
| - Tactile, auditory, and chemical perceptual systems stimulated in the womb and operational at birth
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Visual system not stimulated until birth
• 20/800 at birth to 20/100 by 6 months
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Visual system develops in a ________ fashion
Continuous
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When does he visual system develop?
3-4 months
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Preferential looking procedure measured?
• Measure how long infant looks at a stimulus
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Results from preferential looking procedure?
* Newborns look longer at stimuli they find interesting
| * Determine when ‘detail’ becomes interesting
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Preferential looking to
| determine preference for types of
visual stimuli
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Tactile, auditory, & chemical perceptual senses operating at
birth
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Newborns will orient towards significant stimuli such as
source of sounds, tactile stimuli,
| odours
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Newborn Learning
* Habituation
* Discriminate sounds
* Acquire classically conditioned responses
* observational learning
* Imitate adult facial expressions
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Audition sensory perception
- sound localization
- phoneme discrimination
- music perception
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Sound localization
U-shaped function, disappears at 4 months then reappears at 6 months
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Phoneme discrimination
- Exceeds that of any adult
| - disappears by 1 year of age
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Music perception
Shoes similar response of consonant and dissonant patterns as adults
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Maturation development
Biologically programmed
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Proximodistal principle
Development is from innermost to outer
| - arms develop before fingers
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Cephalocaudal principle
* Development is from head to foot
| * Head is large - growth proceeds towards lower body
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At birth the brain is ___% of the adult weight
25%
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At 6 months the brain is ___% of the adult weight
50%
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How does the weight of the Brian increase for a newborn?
Cells become larger and neural networks form
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Most skills follow
stage-like sequences
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Does the age for acquiring skills vary?
YES
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For sequence, does it vary>?
NO
50
An example of something that has a U-shaped function
Stepping reflex
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Visual deprivation can permanently damage
Visual abilities
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General Principles of environmental and cultural influences
* Biology sets limits on environmental influences
* Environmental influences can be powerful
* Biological & environmental factors interact
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Piaget’s Stage Model
* Brain builds schemas to achieve understanding
| * Schemas are modified to create equilibrium between environment & understanding
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Assimilation
• New experiences incorporated into existing schemas
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Accommodation
• New experiences cause existing schemas to change
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Cognitive development
- Patients stage model
- assimilation
- accommodation
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Piaget’s Stage Theory stages
1) sensorimotor stage
2) peroperational stage
3) concrete operational stage
4) formal operational stage
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Sensorimotor Stage
* Birth to 2 years
* Understand world through sensory experiences & physical interactions with objects
* Begin to acquire language
- object permanence
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Object Permanence
* Understanding that objects
* Continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen
* About 8 months
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Preoperational Stage
• Ages 2-7
• World represented symbolically through words and mental images
- Symbolic thinking enables pretend play
* Child does not understand conservation
* Thinking displays irreversibility, centration, animism, egocentrism
* Preoperational children’s thinking also reflects egocentrism
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Preoperational Stage involves :
- Conservation of Volume (kids dont understand volume properly)
- Egocentrism
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Egocentrism
•Difficulty viewing the world from someone else’s perspective
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Concrete Operational Stage
* Ages 7-12
* Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations
* Have difficulty with problems that require abstract reasoning
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Formal Operational Stage
* Develops around 11 or 12
* Think logically about concrete & abstract problems
* Form & test hypotheses
65
Assessment of Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Cognitive abilities associated with four stages of develop in same order across cultures (Universality principle)
• Development within each stage proceeds
inconsistently
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Do children acquire cognitive skills earlier then paigets believed?
YES
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In piagets stage theory, does culture influence cognitive development
YES
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Vygotsky: The Social Context of Cognitive Development
Zone of proximal development
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Zone of proximal development
• Difference between what child can do independently & what he /she can do with assistance
70
Zone of proximal development provides insight into
cognitive abilities that are in
| process of maturation
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Information-Processing
* Development is continual and gradual
* Not stage-like
* Cognitive growth occurs as information processing abilities gradually become more efficient
72
As children age:
* Information-search strategies improve
* Information-processing speed quickens
* Memory capabilities improve
* Metacognition develops
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Theory of Mind
•Refers to a person’s beliefs about the mind and the ability to understand other people’s mental states;
- That is, we have theories about the contents of other people’s ’ minds
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When do we develop a sense of self
18 months
- display basic emotions
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At age 2 we learn ..
Rules and performance standards
- display guilt
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Temperament
* Biologically based style of behavioural & emotional reactions
* Relatively stable but predictions are difficult
77
Research suggests that in terms of tempermanent
* Extreme temperamental styles can predict some behaviours in future
* Different genetic profiles for dopamine receptor among aggressive & non-aggressive children
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Erik Erickson’s theory
* 8 major psychosocial stages
* ‘Crisis’ to be resolved
* Various crises are relevant at specific ages
* Each stage creates new opportunities
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Is personality fixed in childhood ?
NO
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Themes / patterns that emerge early in childhood =
Important later in life
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Erik ericksons theory
```
First year Basic trust vs. basic mistrust 1–2 : Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3–5 : Initiative vs. guilt
6–12 : Industry vs. inferiority
12–20 : Identity vs. role confusion
20–40 : Intimacy vs. isolation
40–65 : Generativity vs. stagnation
65+ : Integrity vs. despair
```
82
Social-emotional development involves
Attachment and imprinting
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Attachment
• Strong emotional bond between children & primary caregivers
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Imprinting
• Biologically primed form of attachment
85
Harry Harlow (1958)
• Contact comfort more important than
| nourishment in fostering attachment
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Attachment process
* Indiscriminate attachment behaviour (newborns)
* Discriminate attachment behaviour (3months)
* Specific attachment behaviour (7-8months)
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Types of Attachment
* 6-7 to 18 months
| * Distress over contact with unfamiliar people
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Indiscriminate attachment
Baby cries and smiles towards anyone’s, these behaviour evoke caregiving from any adult
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Discriminate attachment
3 months old, direct behaviours towards familiar adults
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Specific attachment behaviour
Around 7 or 8 months develop first meaningful attachment.
91
Separation anxiety
* 12-16 months to 2-3 years
* Distress over being separated from primary caregiver
* Shows similar pattern across cultures
92
Goal-corrected partnership
* Age 3-4
* Share feelings
emerges in which children and caregivers can describe their feelings to each other and maintain their relationships whether they are together or apart.
93
Strange Situation Test
* Mother plays with baby (12-18 months old) - stranger enters
* Mother leaves
* Stranger leaves - baby alone • Mother returns
94
Secure Attachment
* Explore & react positively to strangers
* Distressed when mother leaves
* Happy when mother returns
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Two types of insecure attachment
* Anxious-resistant
| * Anxious-avoidant
96
Anxious-resistant
* Fearful when mother present
* Demand attention
* Distressed when mother leaves
* Not soothed when she returns
97
Anxious-avoidant
* Show few signs of attachment
| * Seldom cries when mother leaves •Doesn’t seek contact upon mother’s return
98
Consequences of Attachment
* Secure infants are better socially adjusted
| * Nonsecure infants more behavioural problems
99
Prolonged attachment deprivation = long-term risks
* Not all in deprived environments at risk resilience
| * Placed in nurturing environment at early age = well-adjusted
100
The Daycare Controversy
| • Attachment
High quality care did not impact attachment to parents
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The Daycare Controversy
| • Social Behaviour
• No significant differences
102
The Daycare Controversy
| • Cognitive Performance
* No significant differences
| * High quality daycare associated with better performance
103
Styles of Parenting
| • Determined along 2 dimensions
* Warmth vs. hostility
| * Restrictiveness vs. permissiveness
104
Authoritative parenting
Warmth/ acceptance + restrictiveness
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Authoritarian parenting
Hostility/rejection + restrictiveness
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Neglectful parenting
Permissive + hostility / rejection
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Indulgent parenting
Permissive + warmth /acceptance
108
Authoritative Parents
* Controlling but warm
| * Most positive childhood outcomes
109
Authoritarian Parents
* Exert control but cold, unresponsive, or rejecting
| * Poorer self-esteem, popularity, school performance
110
Indulgent Parents
* Warm and caring, don’t provide guidance and discipline
| * Children immature, self-centered
111
Neglectful Parents
* Not warm, No rules of guidance
| * Most negative developmental outcomes
112
Gender Identity
•Sense of ‘femaleness’ or ‘maleness’ (2-3 years of age)
113
Gender Constancy
•Understanding one’s sex is permanent (6-7 years of age)
114
Sex-typing
* Involves treating others differently based on whether they are female or male
* From infancy onward, girls and boys are viewed and treated differently
115
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory
* Analyzed responses to ethical dilemmas
| * 3 levels with 2 substages each
116
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory levels :
Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning
117
Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
* Judgments of ‘right’ & ‘wrong’ based on actual or anticipated punishments & reward
* Judgments not based on internalized moral values
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Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
* Moral judgments based on conformity to expectations of social groups
* Person adopts other people’s values
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Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning
* Moral judgments based on general principles; following one’s conscience
* Principles have been internalized & are part of person’s value system
120
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
* Western cultural bias
* Gender bias
* Emphasis on ‘thinking’ not ‘behaviour’
121
Carol Gilligan
* Kohlberg’s theory emphasized ‘justice’
| * Women place value on ‘caring’
122
Conclusion to Kohlberg’s theory
* Moral development occurs within social context
| * Cognitive + behavioural components
123
What influences internal regulatory mechanism – (conscience)
* Internalizing societal values from parents
* Temperament
* Learning
* Attachment
* Emotional regulation
124
Prefrontal cortex involved in some aspects of moral decisions?
YES
125
Damage to prefrontal cortex area associated with
abnormal judgments of right and wrong
126
The Adolescent Brain
| • Cortical white matter within the frontal cortex
increases, especially in areas for impulse control and abstract thought
127
In adolescent brains, non-myelinated grey matter in the frontal cortex peaks at around
* 11 years for female
| * 12 years for male
128
The Adolescent Brain
| • These changes reflect the
pruning of unnecessary cells by maturation and experience
* This maturation of neural networks permits more-efficient communication between brain regions
* Corpus callosum increases 10%
129
Adolescent Egocentrism
* Overestimation of uniqueness of feelings, experiences (personal fable)
* Oversensitivity to social evaluation (imaginary audience)
130
In adolescent cognitive dev., there is an increase in
abstract reasoning abilities
• More flexible, creative thinking
131
When adolescents attain formal operational thought they can use
deductive reasoning to solve scientific problems systematically
132
Changes in Adulthood
• Post-formal operational thinking
* Is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development
* Allows for new and more complex ways people can reason logically about opposing points of view
* Accept contradictions and irreconcilable differences
133
Changes in Information Processing and memory
* Perceptual speed
* Memory for new information
* Spatial memory
* Recall
* Changes to prospective memory – less clear
134
Crystallized Intelligence Peak in
middle adulthood and then decline
135
Fluid Intelligence Begins to decline in
early adulthood
136
Cross sectional studies suggest wisdom
increases with age
137
Adolescent Social-Emotional and Personality Development
• Identity Diffusion
- No identity crisis yet; uncommitted to a role
• Foreclosure
- Adopting a role without going through identity crisis
• Moratorium
- Current identity crisis; not resolved
• Identity Achievement
- Gone through identity crisis; successfully resolved
138
Erickson’s stages for transition to adulthood
* Intimacy versus Isolation (early adulthood)
* Generativity versus Stagnation (middle adulthood)
* Integrity versus Despair (late adulthood)
139
Birth of children dramatically changes the way couples
spend their time
140
Marital satisfaction
* Decreases first few years after the first child is born
| * Typically increases after children have left home
141
Establishing a Career
• Growth stage
- Formation of initial interests
• Exploration stage
- Tentative ideas about a preferred career
• Establishment phase
- People begin to make their mark
• Maintenance stage
- Careers become more stable
• Decline stage
- Investment in work decreases
