Chapter 13 - behaviour in a social context Flashcards
1
Q
Perceiving the causes of behaviour
A
Attributions
2
Q
Attributions
A
Judgments about causes of our own
and other people’s behaviour and outcomes
• Did this happen because of X or because of Y?
• Affect our subsequent behaviour and emotions
3
Q
Kelly’s Theory
A
- Situational attribution = all 3 high
* Personal attribution = consistency high, consensus & distinctiveness low
4
Q
In Kellys theory, attributional factors
A
- Consistency
- Distinctiveness
- Consensus
5
Q
Fundamental Attribution Error
A
•Explaining others’ behaviour:
- Underestimate impact of situational factors
- Overestimate role of personal factors
- Even when informed role was assigned
- Situational information was ignored
6
Q
Does fundemtal attribution error apply to ourselves, why or why not
A
No.
Have more information about ourselves •Others are ‘figure’
•We are ‘background’ - situation stands out
7
Q
How to explain our own behaviours
A
Self serving bias
8
Q
Self-serving bias
A
- More personal attributions for successes
- More situational attributions for failures
- Strength depends on psychological state & culture
- Depressed people = more personal attributions for failures
9
Q
Individualistic cultures have more __________ attributions and collective take more ____________
A
Personal
Responsibility for failures
10
Q
Primacy effect: First impressions
A
- Attach more importance to initial information
- Tend to be most alert to information received first
- Initial information may shape how we perceive subsequent info
11
Q
Decrease primacy effect?
A
By telling ppl to not make snap judgments and consider evidenced, make them accountable
12
Q
What are stereotypes
A
They are schemas
13
Q
Attitude-behaviour relationship strongest when:
A
- Situational factors are weak
- Are aware of attitudes & they are strongly held • Think about attitudes before acting
- Attitudes predict general rather than specific classes of behaviour
14
Q
Theory of Planned Behaviour
A
• Intention to engage in behaviour
15
Q
Intention to engage in behaviour is strongest when:
A
- Positive attitude toward behaviour
- Subjective norms (perceptions) support attitudes
- Belief that behaviour is under personal control
16
Q
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory
A
- Strive for consistency in cognitions
- Two inconsistent cognitions = cognitive dissonance
- Dissonance leads to motivation to change one cognition or add new cognitions
17
Q
Counterattitudinal behaviour
A
- Inconsistent with one’s attitude
* Produces dissonance if freely chosen
18
Q
Does dissonance always lead to attitude change, why or why not
A
- Does not always lead to attitude change
* E.g., Rationalize behaviour - external justifications
19
Q
Self-perception theory
A
Make inferences about own attitudes by
observing own behaviour
• Infer how we must feel from how we act
20
Q
Between self perception and cognitive dissonance, which is more effective
A
Cognitive dissonance. But if mono phiological arousal (tension) then self perception
21
Q
Three Aspects of Persuasion Process
A
- Communicator
- Message
- Audience
22
Q
Communicator credibility
A
- How believable the communicator is
* Often is the key to effective persuasion
23
Q
The Message
A
- Two-sided refutational approaches most effective
* Perceived as less biased
24
Q
Extreme or moderate arguments
A
- If audience disagrees moderate degree of discrepancy with their view is best
- Fear arousal works best when message invokes moderate-strong fear and low-cost ways to reduce threat
25
Central route to persuasion
• Think carefully (need for cognition) about message and find arguments compelling (relevance)
- last longer
- predict future Behaviour better
26
Peripheral route to persuasion
• Influenced by other factors than message arguments
27
Social Facilitation
•Increased tendency to perform one’s dominant response in presence of others
* Typically correct when task is easy
* Typically incorrect when task is hard
28
Social Norms
• Shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave
• Regulate daily behaviour without conscious
awareness (hinder or enhance performance)
29
Norms & Roles Can cause
uncharacteristic behaviour
30
Social Roles Consists of a set of norms that characterize how people in a social position ought to
behave
• Role conflict = norms for different roles clash
31
For norm formation, Have need for common
standards for behaviour & judgment
• Both in cultures & small groups
32
What’s essential for forms to influence people?
Conformity
33
Adjustment of:
Will give you conformity
* Individual behaviours
* Attitudes
* Beliefs
34
Why Do People Conform?
* Informational social influence
| * Normative Social Influence
35
Informational social influence
• Conformity because we believe others have accurate knowledge & are “right”
36
Normative Social Influence
• Conforming to obtain rewards & avoid rejection
37
Factors That Affect Conformity •
- Group size
At least 5
• Presence of a dissenter
At least one reduces conformity
• Type of culture
Greater in collectivist cultures
• Gender
No differences in conformity
38
Minority Influence Strongest When
* Commit to point of view
* Consistent, independent in face pressure
* Open mind
39
Milgram’s experiment
• Deliver a shock when a
mistake was made
```
• Mistakes deliberately made -
no shocks actually delivered
but
• Participant did not know this!
• How far would they go?
```
65% obeyed to highest
| level of shock value! • No gender differences
40
Factors That Influence Destructive Obedience
* Remoteness of victim
* Closeness & legitimacy of authority figure
* Cog in a wheel (Someone else doing ‘dirty work’)
• Personal characteristics
(Political orientation, occupation, religious beliefs etc)
41
Detecting and Resisting Compliance Techniques
• Norm of Reciprocity
• Door-in-the-face-technique
• Foot-in-the-door-technique
- Lowballing
42
Crowd Behaviour and Deindividuation
| Key?
Anonymity to outsider, loss of accountability = deindividuation
43
Social loafing more common in
all-male than in all-female or mixed
groups
• Occurs more in individualistic cultures
44
Causes for social loafing:
* Individual performance is not being monitored
* Goal or task has little value / meaning
* Task is simple & person’s effort is redundant
45
Group Polarization
* ‘going to extremes’
| * ‘average’ opinion of group becomes more extreme
46
Causes of Group Polarization
* Normative social influence: Gain group’s approval
| * Informational social influence: Information validates position
47
Groupthink
• Tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement
48
Groupthink Causes
* High stress to make decision
* Insulation from outside input
* Directive leader who promotes his or her personal agenda
* High group cohesion
49
Can groupthink be avoided?
• Critical thinking, outsiders, subgroups
50
Affiliation – Four Psychological Reasons
1. Obtain positive stimulation
2. Receive emotional support
3. Gain attention
4. Social comparison:
• Comparison of beliefs, feelings, & behaviour to others
•Determine if our responses are “normal”
51
What effects our need for affiliations?
- high need for affiliation = friends
- sense of community
- fear : increase desire to be with others. (In tragedies ppl get along and support each to her)
52
Initial attraction
- physical proximity
- mere exposure effect
- similarities: birds of a feather
(opposites attract also tho?)
53
Attraction
Matching affect
Similarity-attraction
54
Similarity-attraction
• Attracted to people who are similar to us
55
Moderately feminized faces perceived as the
most attractive
56
How do relationships becomes deeper and broader
Self disclosure
57
• Importance of Self-Disclosure
* Key role in fostering close relationships
* Sharing of innermost thoughts and feelings
* Fosters intimacy & trust, which in turn foster more self disclosure
58
Social exchange theory
• Course of a relationship is governed by rewards and costs that the partners experience
59
Comparison level for alternatives
* Focus is on potential alternatives
| * Influences commitment
60
Comparison level leads to
Satisfaction with relationship
61
Comparison level for alternatives
Commitment to relationship
62
Triangular theory of love
* Intimacy: Closeness, sharing, valuing one’s partner
* Passion: Feelings of romance, physical attraction, sexual desire
* Commitment: Decision to remain in relationship
63
7 Types of Love
• Consummate love (middle of triangle) = Intimacy, Passion & Commitment
- liking (intimacy alone)
- romantic (intimacy+passion)
- compassionate (intimacy+commitment)
- infatuation (passion alone)
- fatuous (passion+commitment)
- empty (commitment alone)
64
The Cognitive-Arousal Model: Why Does My Heart Pound?
Transfer of excitation
* Arousal due to one source is misattributed to another
* Misinterpreted as ‘love’
65
Amount of anger expressed in lab interactions predict stability or happiness?
No
66
Making Close Relationships Work
Need more than passion!
| • Intimacy, self-disclosure, commitment
67
Cognitive roots of prejudice
Categorization - “us-them” thinking
More negative qualities to out-group
• Out-group homogeneity bias
•‘They’ are more similar; all alike
68
When individuals contradict our stereotypes, we can:
* Change the stereotype
* Explain person as an exceptional case
* Explain behavior using situational causes
69
Motivational Roots of Prejudice
* Realistic Conflict Theory
| * Social Identity Theory
70
• Social Identity Theory
Prejudice stems from a need to enhance self-esteem
71
Realistic Conflict Theory
Competition for limited resources fosters prejudice
72
How Prejudice Confirms Itself
* Self-fulfilling prophecies
| * Stereotype threat
73
• Stereotype threat
• Stereotypes create self consciousness and a fear that they will live up to others’ stereotypes
74
Self-fulfilling prophecies
• Discriminatory behaviour causes others to behave in a way that confirms our stereotypes
75
Reducing Discrimination
* Equal status contact
* Sustained close contact
* Equal status of both groups
* Work to achieve a common goal that requires cooperation
* Supported by broader social norms
76
Social Learning & Cultural Influences
* Norm of Reciprocity
| * Norm of Social Responsibility
77
Socialization
• Children act more pro-socially if taught empathy
78
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
* Empathy = ability to share another’s experience
| * Empathy produces altruism
79
Negative state relief model
* Self-focused goal not altruistic one
* High empathy causes distress when others suffer
* Reduced personal feelings of distress
80
Bystander intervention: Issues in the 5 step process
Decide if it’s an emergency
- Use of social comparison
- Do others think this is an emergency
Assume responsibility to intervene
- Multiple bystanders may inhibit tendency to help
- Diffusion of responsibility
Act or not - depends on self-efficacy
- Confidence in dealing with situation
81
Just-world hypothesis
* Want to perceive world as fair
| * Can lead us to perceive that some people ‘get what they deserve’
82
Who do we help
We help ppl similar to us.
- or just-world hypothesis
83
Increasing Pro-Social Behaviour
• Exposing people to pro-social models
• Encouraging feelings of empathy & connectedness to others
• Learning about factors that hinder bystander
intervention
84
Hypothalamus and aggression
* Stimulating hypothalamus = aggressive behaviours
| * Destruction = decrease in aggression
85
Amagdala linked to aggreesive behaviour?
Yes
86
Murderers have
- lower activity in the Frontal lobes
- low serotonin
- high testosterone
87
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
* Frustration leads to aggression
* Aggression is result of frustration
* No longer accepted cuz frustration doesn’t always cause aggression
88
Learning to Aggress:
Reinforcement and Modelling
89
Psychological Factors in Aggression
Self-justification:
• Blame victim
• Minimize seriousness
• Dehumanize victim
Attribution of intentionality (seen as more hostile)
Degree of empathy (regulate emotion)
90
Principle of Catharsis
* Aggressive behaviour discharges aggressive energy
* Behaviour temporarily reduces impulses to aggress
* Channel aggressive impulses into socially acceptable behaviours
91
Psychodynamic processes
- principle of catharsis
| - over controlled hostility
92
Overcontrolled Hostility
* Little immediate reaction
| * After provocations accumulate, can suddenly erupt into violence
93
Media Violence: Catharsis versus Social Learning
- Social Learning
• Exposure to movie & TV
| violence is related to tendency to behave aggressively
94
Effects of Media Violence
* Learn behaviours through modelling
* Believe aggression is usually rewarded
* Desensitized to sight & sound of violence & to victim
95
Do violent video games promote aggression?
• Weak positive relation between play and aggressive behaviour
96
Is catharsis supported
No
97
Strongest relationship for games that involve
violent fantasy action
