Chapter 12 Problem Solvinng Slides Flashcards
(22 cards)
4 Features of a problem
1) a GOAL, or a description of what constitutes a solution
2) a description of OBJECTS relevant to achieving a solution
3) a set of OPERATIONS or allowable actions toward solution
4) a set of CONSTRAINTS not to be violated
Knowledge Lean Problems
Can be solved (though not always skillfully) by use of instructions for the task and general problem-solving skills (e.g., finding parking)
Knowledge rich problems
Requires specific knowledge or skills to solve the problem (e.g., calculus, computer programming)
Well defined (problems)
A problem usually having a clear cut solution; can be solved by an algorithm (e.g., crossword puzzle or algebra)
Ill defined (problems)
A problem usually having multiple possible solutions; cannot be solved by an algorithm (e.g., writing a hit song)
Greeno’s 3 types of problems
1) Arrangement problems: e.g., anagrams: KEROJ
2) Inducing structure problems: e.g., 1,2,3,4_
3) Transformation problems: e.g., Rubics cube
General Methods
1) generate test method(trial and error)
2) means end analysis (a heuristic) the problem solver begins by envisioning the end, or ultimate goal, and then determines the best strategy for attaining the goal in his current situation. (break problem into subgoals)
Problem space
The domain of the problem and the choices the solver evaluates during solution
Plan
A hierarchical process that controls the order in which a sequence of operations is to be performed
Mental set
A tendency to repeat a solution process that has succeeded previously
Functional fixedness
Treating an object as having only one function; no thinking creatively
Reproductive thinking
Learning by rote
Productive thinking
Learning in a way that makes generalization to new situations easier and more flexible
Creativity
A new solution to an old problem, when it had never been solved before, and when we recognize it as such
Insight
A deep, useful understanding of the nature of something, especially a difficult problem
4 Steps to the creative process
1) Preparation= formulating and beginning
2) Incubation= setting aside
3) Illumination= achieving insight
4) Verification = checking solution
Why should an interruption help? (Incubation and insight) (Posner)
1) recovery from fatigue
2) forget inappropriate approaches
3) reorganization
General problem solver
- computer program that solves a variety of problems
- an explicit, testable theory
- uses means-end analysis; subgoals
- solves well defined problems; no reformulation
Expert Systems
- solves specific problem (not general) e.g., medical diagnosis
- sophisticated but lack generality and flexibility
When do we use analogies?
we use analogies only when the relation between problems is obvious, otherwise we do not.
-that is, when they don’t differ markedly in surface features
Gick & Holyoak (1980) General/fortress story
when subjects were given a story about a general who attacked a fortress by splitting up his forces and converging from many directions they were better able to solve the problem of how to operate on an ‘inoperable’ tumour. (by radiating from many sides like forces did)
Allan Newell and Herbert Simon
- they developed General Problem Solver model
- developed earliest computer simulations of methods of problem solving
- earliest chess programs
