Chapter 12 Problem Solvinng Slides

Question 1

4 Features of a problem

Answer 1

1) a GOAL, or a description of what constitutes a solution
2) a description of OBJECTS relevant to achieving a solution
3) a set of OPERATIONS or allowable actions toward solution
4) a set of CONSTRAINTS not to be violated

Question 2

Knowledge Lean Problems

Answer 2

Can be solved (though not always skillfully) by use of instructions for the task and general problem-solving skills (e.g., finding parking)

Question 3

Knowledge rich problems

Answer 3

Requires specific knowledge or skills to solve the problem (e.g., calculus, computer programming)

Question 4

Well defined (problems)

Answer 4

A problem usually having a clear cut solution; can be solved by an algorithm (e.g., crossword puzzle or algebra)

Question 5

Ill defined (problems)

Answer 5

A problem usually having multiple possible solutions; cannot be solved by an algorithm (e.g., writing a hit song)

Question 6

Greeno’s 3 types of problems

Answer 6

1) Arrangement problems: e.g., anagrams: KEROJ
2) Inducing structure problems: e.g., 1,2,3,4_
3) Transformation problems: e.g., Rubics cube

Question 7

General Methods

Answer 7

1) generate test method(trial and error)
2) means end analysis (a heuristic) the problem solver begins by envisioning the end, or ultimate goal, and then determines the best strategy for attaining the goal in his current situation. (break problem into subgoals)

Question 8

Problem space

Answer 8

The domain of the problem and the choices the solver evaluates during solution

Question 9

Plan

Answer 9

A hierarchical process that controls the order in which a sequence of operations is to be performed

Question 10

Mental set

Answer 10

A tendency to repeat a solution process that has succeeded previously

Question 11

Functional fixedness

Answer 11

Treating an object as having only one function; no thinking creatively

Question 12

Reproductive thinking

Answer 12

Learning by rote

Question 13

Productive thinking

Answer 13

Learning in a way that makes generalization to new situations easier and more flexible

Question 14

Creativity

Answer 14

A new solution to an old problem, when it had never been solved before, and when we recognize it as such

Question 15

Insight

Answer 15

A deep, useful understanding of the nature of something, especially a difficult problem

Question 16

4 Steps to the creative process

Answer 16

1) Preparation= formulating and beginning
2) Incubation= setting aside
3) Illumination= achieving insight
4) Verification = checking solution

Question 17

Why should an interruption help? (Incubation and insight) (Posner)

Answer 17

1) recovery from fatigue
2) forget inappropriate approaches
3) reorganization

Question 18

General problem solver

Answer 18

• computer program that solves a variety of problems
• an explicit, testable theory
• uses means-end analysis; subgoals
• solves well defined problems; no reformulation

Question 19

Expert Systems

Answer 19

• solves specific problem (not general) e.g., medical diagnosis
• sophisticated but lack generality and flexibility

Question 20

When do we use analogies?

Answer 20

we use analogies only when the relation between problems is obvious, otherwise we do not.
-that is, when they don’t differ markedly in surface features

Question 21

Gick & Holyoak (1980) General/fortress story

Answer 21

when subjects were given a story about a general who attacked a fortress by splitting up his forces and converging from many directions they were better able to solve the problem of how to operate on an ‘inoperable’ tumour. (by radiating from many sides like forces did)

Question 22

Allan Newell and Herbert Simon

Answer 22

• they developed General Problem Solver model
• developed earliest computer simulations of methods of problem solving
• earliest chess programs