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PSYCH 105 > Chapter 16 > Flashcards

Chapter 16 Flashcards

1
Q

Judgement of Abnormality

A
  1. we are likely to label behaviours as abnormal if they are intensely distressing to the individual
  2. most behaviours judged abnormal are dysfunctional either for the individual or for society
  3. society’s judgments concerning the deviance of a given behaviour
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2
Q

abnormal behaviour

A

behaviour that is personally distressing, personally dysfunctional, and/or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive

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3
Q

trephination

A

A sharp tool was used to chisel a hole about 2 centimetres in diameter in the skull. It seems likely that in many cases trephination successfully eliminated abnormal behaviour by putting an end to the patient’s life

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4
Q

general paresis

A

a disorder characterized in its advanced stages by mental deterioration and bizarre behaviour, resulted from massive brain deterioration caused by the sexually transmitted disease syphilis

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5
Q

vulnerability-stress model

A

sometimes called the diathesis-stress model; each of us has some degree of vulnerability (ranging from very low to very high) for developing a psychological disorder, given sufficient stress

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6
Q

stressor

A

some recent or
current event that requires a person to cope, combines with the vulnerability to trigger the disorder

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7
Q

Reliability

A

clinicians using the system should show high levels of agreement in their diagnos- tic decisions

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8
Q

Validity

A

the diagnostic categories should accurately capture the essential features of the various disorders

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9
Q

DSM-5

A
  • the most widely used diagnostic classification system in North America
  • the DSM-5 contains detailed lists of observable behaviours that must be present in order for a diagnosis to be made
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10
Q

DSM-IV-TR

A
  • a categorical system, in which people were placed within specific diagnostic categories
  • the criteria are so detailed and specific that many people—as many as 50 percent—don’t fit neatly into the categories
  • Moreover, people who receive the same diagno- sis may share only certain symptoms and look very different from one another
  • categorical system does not provide a way of capturing the severity of the person’s disorder
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11
Q

dimensional

A
  • An alternative (or supplement) to the categorical system
  • relevant behaviours are rated along a severity measure
  • based on the assumption that psychological disorders are extensions different in degree
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12
Q

Two particularly important legal concepts are:

A

competency and insanity

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13
Q

Competency

A

a defendant’s state of mind at the time of a judicial hearing (not at the time the crime was committed)

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14
Q

Insanity

A

a far more controversial issue, relates to the presumed state of mind of the defendant at the time the crime was committed

  • insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one
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15
Q

anxiety disorders

A
  • the frequency and intensity of anxiety responses are out of proportion to the situations that trigger them, and the anxiety interferes with daily life
  • Large-scale population stud- ies indicate that anxiety disorders are the most prevalent of all psychological disorders in North America, affecting 18.6 percent of the popula- tion during their lifetimes
  • All of the anxiety disorders tend to occur more frequently in females than in males
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16
Q

Anxiety responses have four components:

A

(1) a subjective-emotional component, including feelings of tension and apprehension
(2) a cognitive component, including subjective feelings of apprehension, a sense of impending danger, and a feeling of inability to cope
(3) physiological responses, including increased heart rate and blood pressure, muscle tension, rapid breathing, nausea, dry mouth, diarrhea, and frequent urination
(4) behavioural responses, such as avoidance of certain situa- tions and impaired task performance

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17
Q

Anxiety disorders take a number of different forms:

A

phobic disorders, generalized anxiety disorders, and panic disorders

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18
Q

Incidence

A

refers to the number of new cases that occur during a given period

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19
Q

Prevalence

A

refers to the number of people who have a disorder during a specified period of time

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20
Q

Phobias

A

strong and irrational fears of certain objects or situations

  • Phobias can develop at any point in life, but many of them develop during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood
  • Once phobias develop, they seldom go away on their own, and they may broaden and intensify over time
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21
Q

agoraphobia

A

a fear of open and public places

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22
Q

social anxiety disorder

A

formerly known as social phobia, excessive fear of situations in which the person might be evaluated and possibly embarrassed

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23
Q

specific phobias

A

fears of dogs, snakes, spiders, airplanes, elevators, enclosed spaces, water, injections, illness, or death

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24
Q

generalized anxiety and worry disorder (GAD)

A
  • chronic state of diffuse, or “free-floating,” anxiety that is not attached to specific situations or objects
  • anxiety may last for months on end, with the signs almost continuously present
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25
Q

panic disorders

A
  • occur suddenly and unpredictably, and they are much more intense. The symptoms of panic attacks can be terrifying. It is not unusual for victims to feel that they are dying
  • panic attacks occur out of the blue and in the absence of any identifiable stimulus
  • Many people with panic attacks develop agoraphobia
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26
Q

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

A

usually consist of two components, one cognitive and the other behavioural

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27
Q

Obsessions

A

are repetitive and unwelcome thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness, are often abhorrent to the person, and are very difficult to dismiss or control

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28
Q

Compulsions

A

repetitive behavioural responses that can be resisted only with great difficulty

  • Compulsions are often responses to obsessive thoughts and function to reduce the anxiety associated with the thoughts
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29
Q

trichotillomania

A

hair-pulling disorder of OCD

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30
Q

exoriation

A

skin-picking disorder of OCD

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31
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A
  • GABA is an inhibitory transmitter that reduces neural activity in the amygdala and other brain structures that stimulate physiological arousal
  • abnormally low levels of inhibitory GABA activity in these arousal areas may cause some people to have highly reactive nervous systems that quickly produce anxiety responses in response to stressors
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32
Q

neurotic anxiety

A

occurs when unacceptable impulses threaten to overwhelm the ego’s defences and explode into action

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33
Q

culture-bound disorders

A

occur only in certain places

34
Q

anorexia nervosa

A
  • have an intense fear of being fat and severely restrict their food intake to the point of self-starvation. Despite looking emaciated and weighing less than 85 percent of what would be expected for their age and height, anorexics continue to view themselves as fat
  • About 90 percent of anorexics are female, mostly adolescents and young adults
  • causes menstruation to stop, strains the heart, produces bone loss, and increases the risk of death
35
Q

bulimia nervosa

A
  • are overly concerned with becoming fat, but instead of self-starvation they binge eat and then purge the food, usually by inducing vomiting or using laxatives
  • About 90 percent of bulimics are female
  • Although most bulimics are of normal body weight, repeated purging can produce severe physical consequences, including gastric prob- lems and badly eroded teeth
36
Q

Anorexics

A
  • often are perfectionists: high achievers who often strive to live up to lofty self-standards, including distorted standards concerning an acceptably thin body
37
Q

mood disorders

A
  • involve depression and mania (excessive excitement)
  • anxiety disorders, mood disorders are the most frequently experienced psychological disorders
  • Anxiety and mood disorders have a high comorbidity (co-occurrence)
38
Q

major depression

A

leaves them unable to function effectively in their lives

39
Q

dysthymia

A
  • a less intense form of depres- sion called chronic depressive disorder
  • less dramatic effects on personal and occupational functioning
  • more chronic and long-lasting form of misery, occurring for years on end with intervals of normal mood that never last more than a few weeks or months
40
Q

three other types of symptoms:

A

cognitive symptoms, motivational symptoms, and somatic (physical) symptoms

41
Q

negative mood state

A

the core feature of depression

42
Q

bipolar disorder

A

depression (which is usually the dominant state) alternates with periods of mania

43
Q

mania

A

a state of highly excited mood and behaviour that is quite the opposite of depression
- Manic disorders may stem from an overpro- duction of the same neurotransmitters that are underactive in depression
- lithium chloride, the drug most frequently used to calm manic disorders, works by decreasing the activity of these transmitters in the brain’s motivational/pleasure activation system

44
Q

neuroticism

A

the behavioural inhibi- tion system

45
Q

extraversion

A

are heavily involved in the development of mood disorders

46
Q

behavioural activation system (BAS)

A

reward-oriented and activated by cues that predict future pleasure,

47
Q

behavioural inhibition system (BIS)

A

pain-avoidant and generates fear and anxiety

  • Depression is predicted by high BIS sensitivity and low BAS activity. Mania, on the other hand, is linked to high reward-oriented BAS functioning
48
Q

depressive cognitive triad of negative thoughts concerning

A

(1) the world, (2) oneself, and (3) the future

49
Q

Beck believes that this depressive attributional pattern

A

of taking no credit for successes but blaming themselves for failures maintains depressed people’s low self-esteem and their belief that they are worthless failures.

50
Q

learned helplessness theory

A

depression occurs when people expect that bad events will occur and that there is nothing they can do to prevent or cope with them

  • They suggest that chronic and intense depression occurs as the result of negative attributions for failure that are personal (“It’s all my fault”), stable (“I’ll always be this way”), and global (“I’m a total loser”).
51
Q

Sociocultural Factors of Depression

A
  • compared with Western nations, the prevalence of depres- sive disorders is far lower in Hong Kong and Taiwan, where strong connections to family and other groups help to reduce the negative impact of loss and disappointments and pro- vide strong social support when they occur
  • Feelings of guilt and personal inadequacy seem to predominate in North American and western European countries, whereas somatic symptoms of fatigue, loss of appetite, and sleep difficulties are more often reported in Latin, Chinese, and African cultures
  • women are about twice as likely as men to report feeling depressed in technologically advanced countries, yet this sex difference is not found in developing countries
  • White Americans are approximately 50 percent more likely than are Black Americans to suffer from depres- sion in their lifetimes, but Black Americans typically experience more severe and dis- abling symptoms
52
Q

Somatic symptom disorders

A

formerly known as somatoform disorders, involve physical complaints or disabilities that suggest a medical problem, but which have no known biological cause and are not produced volun- tarily by the person

53
Q

pain disorder

A

experience intense pain that either is out of proportion to whatever medical condition they have or for which no physical basis can be found

  • Somatic symptom disorders differ from psychophysiological disorders, in which psychological factors cause or contribute to a real medical condition
54
Q

functional neurological symptom disorder

A

known as conversion disorder, in which serious neurological symptoms, such as paralysis, loss of sensation, or blindness suddenly occur

  • People with conversion disorders often exhibit la belle indifference, a strange lack of concern about their symptom and its implications
  • relatively rare, occurring in about three in 1000 North Americans during peacetime, but such disorders occur more frequently under wartime conditions
55
Q

Dissociative disorders

A

involve a breakdown of this normal integration, resulting in significant alterations in memory or identity. Three forms that such disorders can take are dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and dissociative identity disorder

56
Q

dissociative amnesia

A

a person responds to a stressful event with extensive but selective memory loss

57
Q

Dissociative fugue

A

a more profound and very rare dissociative disorder in which a person loses all sense of personal identity, gives up his or her customary life, wanders to a new faraway location, and establishes a new identity

  • Typically, the fugue ends when the person suddenly recovers his or her original identity and “wakes up,” mystified and distressed at being in a strange place under strange circumstances
58
Q

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A
  • formerly called multiple personality disorder, is the most striking and widely publicized of the dissociative disorders; it is also the most controversial
  • In this disorder, two or more separate personalities coexist in the same person. A primary, or host personality appears more often than the oth- ers (called alters), but each personality has its own integrated set of memories and behaviours
  • They also can differ in age and gender, with one being male, another female
59
Q

Frank Putnam’s trauma-dissociation theory

A

the development of new personalities occurs in response to severe stress

60
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  • a psychotic disorder that involves severe disturbances in thinking, speech, perception, emotion, and behaviour
  • The term schizophrenia means “split mind,”
  • certain psychological functions, such as thought, language, and emotion, which are joined together in normal people, are somehow split apart or disconnected in schizophrenia
  • affects approximately 1 percent of the population in Canada
61
Q

Characteristics of Schizophrenia

A
  • A diagnosis of schizophrenia requires evidence that a person misinterprets reality and exhibits disordered attention, thought, or perception
  • withdrawal from social interaction, communication is strange or inappropriate, personal grooming may be neglected, and behaviour may become disorganized
  • Biological factors are prominently involved in schizophrenia
62
Q

Delusions

A

are false beliefs that are sustained in the face of evidence that nor- mally would be sufficient to destroy them

63
Q

hallucinations

A

false perceptions that have a compelling sense of reality

64
Q

Auditory hallucinations

A

typically voices speaking to the patient are most common

65
Q

Type I schizophrenia

A

is characterized by a predominance of positive symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disordered speech and thinking. These symptoms are called positive because they represent added pathological extremes of normal processes

66
Q

Type II schizophrenia

A

features negative symptoms—an absence of normal reactions— such as lack of emotional expression, loss of motivation, and an absence of normal speech

67
Q

dopamine hypothesis

A
  • states that the symptoms of schizophrenia— particularly positive symptoms—are produced by overactivity of the dopamine system in areas of the brain that regulate emotional expression, motivated behaviour, and cognitive functioning
  • People diagnosed with schizophrenia have more dopamine receptors on neuron membranes than do non-schizophrenics, and these receptors seem to be overreactive to dopamine stimulation
68
Q

regression

A

in which a person retreats to an earlier and more secure (even infantile) stage of psychosocial development in the face of overwhelming anxiety

69
Q

expressed emotion

A

involves high levels of criticism (“All you do is sit in front of that TV”), hostility (“We’re getting sick and tired of your craziness”), and overinvolvement (“You’re not going out unless I go with you”)

70
Q

Many studies have found that the prevalence of schizophrenia is highest in lower socioeconomic populations. Two theories give opposite answers:

A
  • The social causation hypothesis attributes the higher prevalence of schizophrenia to the higher levels of stress that low-income people experience, particularly within urban environments
  • The social drift hypothesis proposes that, as people develop schizophrenia, their personal and occupational functioning deteriorates, so that they drift down the socioeconomic ladder into poverty and migrate to low-cost urban environments
71
Q

personality disorders

A

exhibit stable, ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving

72
Q

Antisocial personality disorder

A
  • people with anti- social personality disorder are among the most interpersonally destructive and emotionally harmful individuals. Males outnumber females three to one in this diagnostic group
  • They exhibit little anxiety or guilt and tend to be impulsive and unable to delay gratification of their needs
  • seem to lack a conscience
  • To be diagnosed as having an antisocial personality disorder, a person must be at least 18 years of age and exhibit antisocial behaviour before the age of 15
  • theorists suggest that such people lack anxiety and guilt because they did not develop an adequate superego
73
Q

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene

A

regulates serotonin, and deficient regulation can lead to impulsive aggression

  • deficient in individuals with antisocial personality disorder
74
Q

borderline personality disorder (BPD)

A
  • refers to a collection of symptoms characterized primarily by serious instability in behaviour, emotion, identity, and interpersonal relationships. A central feature of borderline is emotional dysregulation, an inability to control negative emotions in response to stressful life events, many of which borderline individuals themselves cause
  • have intense and unstable personal relationships, and they experience chronic feelings of extreme anger, loneliness, and emptiness, as well as momentary losses of personal identity
  • inclined to engage in impulsive behaviour
  • highly associated with a number of other disorders, including mood disorders, PTSD, and substance-abuse disorders
  • considered to be among the most difficult clients to treat because of their clinging dependency, their irrational anger, and their tendency to engage in manipulative suicide threats and gestures as efforts to control the therapist
75
Q

splitting

A

the failure to integrate positive and negative aspects of another’s behaviour into a coherent whole. As a result, the borderline individual may react as if the other person had two separate identities, one deserving of love and the other of hatred

76
Q

Main Two Childhood Disorders

A

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism

77
Q

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A

problems may take the form of inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, or a combination of the two

  • making ADHD the most common childhood disorder
  • occurs at least four times more frequently in boys than in girls. Boys are more likely to exhibit aggressive and impulsive behaviours, whereas girls are more likely to be primarily inattentive
78
Q

autistic spectrum disorder

A

a long-term disorder characterized by extreme unrespon- siveness to others, poor communication skills, and highly repetitive and rigid behaviour patterns

  • More than two-thirds have intellectual disability, with IQs below 70 and frequently below 35
  • Many engage in echolalia, the exact echoing of phrases spoken by others
  • Sameness and routine are very important, and autistic children become extremely upset at even minute changes
79
Q

theory of mind

A

refers to an awareness of what others are thinking and how they may be reacting internally

  • Autistic people seem to have poorly developed skills in this area
80
Q

dementia

A

the gradual loss of cognitive abilities that accompanies brain deterioration and interferes with normal functioning. In people with dementia, a progressive atro- phy, or degeneration, of brain tissue occurs as a result of disease or injury

  • Individuals who are developing dementia typically have episodes of distress because they feel confused; they may make nonsensical remarks, lose the procedural abil- ity to perform familiar tasks, or even undergo marked personality change
81
Q

senile dementia

A

When dementia begins after age 65

82
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A
  • the leading cause of dementia in the elderly, accounting for about 60 percent of senile dementias
  • The disorder is caused by deterioration in the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, including the hippocampus, a subcortical structure involved in memory
  • In the advanced stages of the disease, the patient may not recognize even close family members
  • he or she may lose the ability to speak, walk, and control bladder and bowel functions

PSYCH 105 (10 decks)

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