Chapter 2

Question 1

empiricism

Answer 1

the view that all knowledge comes from observed/sensory experience

Question 2

empirical evidence

Answer 2

data collected by scientific observation

Question 3

the two qualities of scientific theories are:

Answer 3

predictive and explanatory

Question 4

the three things scientific theories must be are:

Answer 4

testable, falsifiable, and parsimonious

Question 5

falsifiable

Answer 5

possible to be proven false

Question 6

parsimonious

Answer 6

as simplistic as possible

Question 7

variables

Answer 7

a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals

Question 8

independent variable

Answer 8

variable that is manipulated to see impact on dependent variable

Question 9

dependent variable

Answer 9

variable that is measured to see impact from independent variable

Question 10

operational definitions

Answer 10

definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in terms of concrete, measurable procedures

Question 11

constructs

Answer 11

internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behavior

Question 12

three types of research methods:

Answer 12

descriptive methods, correlational methods, and experimental methods

Question 13

descriptive methods claims?

Answer 13

claims regarding the frequency of some behavior

Question 14

correlational methods claims?

Answer 14

claims regarding the association between two variables

Question 15

experimental methods claims?

Answer 15

claims about the causal relationship between two variables

Question 16

types of observation:

Answer 16

naturalistic observation, participant observation, laboratory observation

Question 17

naturalistic observation

Answer 17

passive observation. observers do not alter ongoing behavior (intentionally)

Question 18

participant observation

Answer 18

active observation. observer is actively involved in situation (may alter by being involved)

Question 19

laboratory observation

Answer 19

systematic observations made in a lab setting

Question 20

descriptive methods weaknesses:

Answer 20

reactivity, observer bias, and self-report bias

Question 21

reactivity

Answer 21

people acting differently because they know they are being observed

Question 22

observer bias

Answer 22

researchers observations being influenced by prior opinions

Question 23

self-report bias

Answer 23

inaccurate self reflections given by participants

Question 24

three things about correlational studies:

Answer 24

examine how variables are related, involve a single group of participants, and allow researchers to make claims about association between variables but not causal claims

Question 25

descriptive method

Answer 25

research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations

Question 26

correlation

Answer 26

the measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

Question 27

theory

Answer 27

set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena

Question 28

meta-analysis

Answer 28

statistical review of many previous experiments on a single topic

Question 29

statistical significance

Answer 29

standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance

Question 30

measure

Answer 30

method for describing a variable's quantity

Question 31

longitudinal study

Answer 31

design assessing age-related changes

Question 32

cross-sectional study

Answer 32

design assessing age-related changes; data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages

Question 33

mixed longitudinal design

Answer 33

method for assessing age-related changes; observes a cross-section of participants over a shorter period

Question 34

normal distribution

Answer 34

symmetrical probability function

Question 35

placebo

Answer 35

inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment

Question 36

validity

Answer 36

quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions

Question 37

null hypothesis

Answer 37

states the default position that there is no real difference between two measures

Question 38

double-blind procedure

Answer 38

design in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows who was given a placebo

Question 39

desriptive statistics

Answer 39

methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value

Question 40

inferential statistics

Answer 40

methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations

Question 41

standard deviation

Answer 41

measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is

Question 42

confirmation bias

Answer 42

noticing and remembering instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them

Question 43

reliability

Answer 43

consistency of a measure, including test–retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency

Question 44

control group

Answer 44

experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable

Question 45

confounding variable

Answer 45

is irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher's conclusions

Question 46

naturalistic observation

Answer 46

in-depth study of a phenomenon in its environment

Question 47

experimental group

Answer 47

participants who are exposed to the independent variable

Question 48

operationalization

Answer 48

defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured

Question 49

third variable

Answer 49

variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest

Question 50

random assignment

Answer 50

each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each experimental condition

Question 51

random sample

Answer 51

each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participant

Question 52

population

Answer 52

the group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to

Question 53

sample

Answer 53

the group of individuals from this population who are actually part of your study

Question 54

quasi-experiment

Answer 54

look like "real experiments" but do not have random assignment

Question 55

pro of a quasi-experiment?

Answer 55

useful for when manipulation isn't feasible/ethical/possible

Question 56

con of a quasi-experiment?

Answer 56

risk of potential confounds limits the claims that a researcher can make