CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Question 1

Proponents: Chinese emperors and government officials
Test/Contribution: Imperial Examination System (Keju) – the world’s earliest large-scale standardized testing system

Dynastic Breakdown & Contributions: Han, Sui, Tang, Song/Sung, & Qing

Purpose: To select civil servants based on merit rather than family status, evaluating intellectual and moral capacity.

Significance: Served as the prototype for later Western civil service and educational testing models.

Answer 1

Ancient China (ca. 2200 B.C.E. – 1912 C.E.)

Question 2

Ancient Chinese dynasty that introduced merit-based testing for government service; focused on Confucian texts and character evaluation.

Answer 2

Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.)

Question 3

Reintroduction and standardization of exams.

Answer 3

Sui Dynasty (581–618 C.E.)

Question 4

Ancient Chinese dynasty that formalized structured written exams emphasizing literary skill and classical knowledge; Expanded and formalized exams, introduced structured written components

Answer 4

Tang Dynasty (618–907 C.E.)

Question 5

Ancient China dynasty of Golden age of imperial exams—tests became highly professionalized, requiring mastery in Confucian classics, essay composition, and poetry.

Answer 5

Song Dynasty (960–1279 C.E.)

Question 6

Ancient China dynasty: Final phase of the examination system; exams were extremely competitive and emphasized memory, logic, and written expression; system lasted until 1905 before being abolished.

Answer 6

Qing Dynasty (1644–1905 C.E.)

Question 7

Concept/Test: Theory of the Four Humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile)

Purpose: To classify people based on bodily fluid imbalances as indicators of personality traits or temperaments

Answer 7

Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE)

Question 8

Concept/Test: Expanded on Hippocrates’ theory of temperament based on humors

Purpose: To further systematize and use humor theory for explaining individual differences in personality and behavior

Answer 8

Galen (c. 129–200 CE)

Question 9

Concept/Test: Spiritual evaluations to determine alliance with the Devil (e.g., Devil’s marks, ordeals, confessions)

Purpose: To identify individuals accused of witchcraft or heresy using moral and religious criteria

Answer 9

Church Authorities/Inquisitors during Middle Ages

Question 10

Concept/Test: Rational psychology; writings that anticipated psychology as a science and measurement as a subfield

Purpose: To lay the groundwork for psychology as a formal scientific discipline and promote systematic psychological assessment

Answer 10

Christian von Wolff (1679–1754)

Question 11

Concept/Test:
Questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories
Anthropometric Laboratory (1884): Measured physical and psychological traits
Early use of statistical methods (e.g., correlation)

Contribution: Pioneered study of individual differences; created the first mental tests.

Purpose: To classify individuals by their “natural gifts” and measure deviations from the average; initiated interest in measuring human abilities scientifically

Developments:
Sensory and reaction-time measurements.
Invented correlation and regression.
Advocated eugenics and heritability of intelligence.

Answer 11

Francis Galton (1822–1911)

Question 12

Concept/Test: Product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r)

Purpose: To statistically quantify relationships between variables, built upon Galton’s ideas and solidified correlation as a core method in psychometrics

Answer 12

Karl Pearson (1857–1936)

Question 13

On the Origin of Species emphasized individual variation as key to evolution.

Sparked interest in measuring psychological traits for adaptive fitness.

Answer 13

Charles Darwin (1859)

Question 14

Established the first psychology lab in Leipzig (1879).

Used introspection, reaction time, and experimental control to study consciousness.

Answer 14

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

Question 15

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab, who introduced experimental psychology to the U.S.; founded APA.

Answer 15

G. Stanley Hall

Question 16

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab who translated Wundt’s work and founded structuralism in America.

Answer 16

E. B. Titchener

Question 17

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab who developed early diagnostic systems for mental illness; groundwork for DSM.

Answer 17

Emil Kraepelin

Question 18

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab who co-developed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale.

Answer 18

Victor Henri

Question 19

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab who founded the first psychology clinic (1896); father of clinical psychology.

Answer 19

Lightner Witmer

Question 20

Key Student & Contributor from Leipzig Lab who developed factor analysis & proposed the g factor (general intelligence), foundational to intelligence testing.

Answer 20

Charles Spearman

Question 21

Developed factor analysis.

Proposed the “g factor” (general intelligence) as the core of cognitive ability.

Advanced the statistical foundations of test validity and reliability.

Answer 21

Charles Spearman (1904–1940s)

Question 22

Coined the term “mental test” (1890).

Developed tests measuring reaction time, memory span, and sensory discrimination.

Answer 22

James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944)

Question 23

Developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (1905).

Introduced the concept of “mental age” to identify children needing special education.

Answer 23

Alfred Binet (1857–1911) & Theodore Simon

Question 24

Revised the Binet-Simon into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1916).

Standardized intelligence testing in the U.S.; introduced the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Answer 24

Lewis Terman (1877–1956)

Question 25

Led the development of Army Alpha (verbal) and Beta (non-verbal) tests during WWI. Enabled mass intelligence testing for military personnel.

Answer 25

Robert Yerkes (1876–1956)

Question 26

Created the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet to assess emotional stability in soldiers First structured personality inventory test for civilian use that was based on the Personal Data Sheet called Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory; inspired future self-report measures.

Answer 26

Robert S. Woodworth (1917)

Question 27

Developed the Rorschach Inkblot Test (1921). Projective test revealing unconscious personality dynamics through image interpretation.

Answer 27

Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922)

Question 28

Developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Used ambiguous images to explore internal conflicts, needs, and motives.

Answer 28

Henry A. Murray & Christiana D. Morgan (1930s)

Question 29

Developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939), later WAIS. Introduced deviation IQ and age-specific subtests. Created WISC for children. Defined intelligence as the ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.

Answer 29

David Wechsler (1896–1981)

Question 30

Developed Primary Mental Abilities theory. Advanced factor analysis to show intelligence as multiple distinct faculties.

Answer 30

L.L. Thurstone (1930s)

Question 31

It refers to a process whereby assessees themselves supply assessment-related information by responding to questions, keeping a diary, or self-monitoring thoughts or behaviors.

Answer 31

Self-report

Question 32

It pertains to a test in which an individual is assumed to “project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation.

Answer 32

Projective test

Question 33

It is “the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people.”

Answer 33

Culture

Question 34

Contribution: Introduced Binet’s test to the U.S. and applied it to immigrants at Ellis Island. Test Involved: Translated Binet Intelligence Test. Controversy: Found high rates of "feeblemindedness" among Jewish, Hungarian, Italian, and Russian immigrants using translated tests—but acknowledged possible cultural deprivation. Legacy: Raised early concerns about language and cultural fairness, though his work later fueled nativist and eugenic ideologies.

Answer 34

Henry H. Goddard

Question 35

Contribution: Revised Binet test into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1937). Issue: Early versions lacked minority representation; cultural bias was inherent in test content and interpretation.

Answer 35

Lewis Terman

Question 36

Contribution: Developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939) and WISC (1949). Issue: Early versions included no minority groups in norming samples.

Answer 36

David Wechsler

Question 37

Identify what issue it tackles in culture and assessment: Language proficiency is crucial for valid assessment; misunderstandings can distort results. Test-takers must understand spoken and written instructions; unfamiliar vocabulary and idioms may confuse those from other cultures. Some assessees may intentionally misuse language barriers to affect evaluation outcomes. Use of translators introduces risks like loss of meaning, unintended cues, or biased difficulty in translated items.

Answer 37

Verbal communication

Question 38

Identify what issue it tackles in culture and assessment: Untrained interpreters may lack understanding of psychological concepts; assessors may also lack skill in working with interpreters. Dialect differences can lead to miscommunication even when examiner and examinee speak the same language. Assessment may reflect cultural assimilation more than the intended construct being measured. Assessors should ask key questions about language proficiency, need for interpreters, or alternatives to ensure fairness and accuracy.

Answer 38

Verbal communication

Question 39

It is characterized by value being placed on traits such as self-reliance, autonomy, independence, uniqueness, and competitiveness.

Answer 39

Individualist Culture

Question 40

(typically associated with the dominant culture in many countries throughout Asia, Latin America and Africa), value is placed on traits such as conformity, cooperation, interdependence, and striving toward group goals.

Answer 40

Collectivist Culture

Question 41

Identify what issue it tackles in culture and assessment: Nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, posture) vary widely across cultures and can lead to misinterpretation. Eye contact may signal honesty in some cultures (e.g., U.S.) but respect or submission in others. Nonverbal behaviors can offer clues in assessments but must be interpreted cautiously and contextually. Cultural norms affect how emotions and attitudes are expressed nonverbally (e.g., pace of movement, posture, expression).

Answer 41

Nonverbal Communication and Behavior

Question 42

Identify what issue it tackles in culture and assessment: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory assigned symbolic meaning to body language, influenced by the cultural norms of his time. Pace of life differences can affect performance on timed tests, which may disadvantage certain cultural groups. Children from cultures that discourage speaking to elders may appear non-communicative, masking their true abilities. Assessors must be culturally informed to accurately interpret nonverbal behaviors during assessment.

Answer 42

Nonverbal Communication and Behavior

Question 43

Identify what issue it tackles in culture and assessment: Evaluative standards vary by culture, just like taste preferences in food—what is "best" is subjective and culturally influenced. Judgments of behavior (e.g., gender roles, leadership, intelligence, psychopathology) differ depending on cultural norms. Individualist cultures (e.g., U.S., U.K.) value autonomy, uniqueness, and independence. Collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, and Latin American societies) value conformity, cooperation, and group harmony.

Answer 43

Standards of Evaluation

Question 44

Personality assessments (e.g., diagnosing dependent personality disorder) can reflect individualist biases, which may mislabel collectivist values as pathology. Workplace evaluations may penalize collectivist individuals for self-effacing behavior that is actually culturally appropriate. Assessment results must be judged with cultural relativity, raising questions like: Are the norms culturally appropriate? How acculturated is the assessee? Is the test validated for this cultural group? Responsible assessors must question the cultural applicability of tools and interpretations to avoid biased outcomes.

Answer 44

Standards of Evaluation

Question 45

It refers to voluntary and mandatory efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local governments, private employers, and schools to combat discrimination and to promote equal opportunity for all in education and employment.

Answer 45

Affirmative Action

Question 46

It pertains to rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as a whole—or rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole.

Answer 46

Laws

Question 47

It is a body of principles of right, proper, or good conduct.

Answer 47

Ethics

Question 48

It is recognized and accepted by members of a profession, it defines the standard of care expected of members of that profession.

Answer 48

Code of Professional Ethics

Question 49

It refers to the level at which the average, reasonable, and prudent professional would provide diagnostic or therapeutic services under the same or similar conditions.

Answer 49

Standard of Care

Question 50

It refers to formal testing programs designed to be used in decisions regarding various aspects of students’ education.

Answer 50

Minimum Competency Testing Programs

Question 51

It was also passed at the state level beginning in the 1980s. The primary objective of these laws was to give test-takers a way to learn the criteria by which they are being judged.

Answer 51

Truth-in-testing legislation

Question 52

A selection procedure whereby a fixed number or percentage of applicants from certain backgrounds were selected.

Answer 52

Quota System

Question 53

It is defined as the practice of making distinctions in hiring, promotion, or other selection decisions that tend to systematically favor members of a majority group regardless of actual qualifications for positions.

Answer 53

Discrimination

Question 54

It may be defined as the practice of making distinctions in hiring, promotion, or other selection decisions that systematically tend to favor members of a minority group regardless of actual qualifications for positions.

Answer 54

Reverse Discrimination

Question 55

It refers to the consequence of an employer’s hiring or promotion practice that was intentionally devised to yield some discriminatory result or outcome.

Answer 55

Disparate Treatment

Question 56

It is the legal process of resolving a dispute through the court system. It typically involves one party (the plaintiff) filing a lawsuit against another party (the defendant) to enforce or defend a legal right, often resulting in a trial, judgment, or settlement.

Answer 56

Litigation

Question 57

As early as 1950, an APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology published a report called?

Answer 57

Ethical Standards for the Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids

Question 58

What level pertains to tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a general orientation to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working (for instance, achievement or proficiency tests)?

Answer 58

Level A

Question 59

Minimal training required; can be administered and interpreted using the manual.

Answer 59

Level A

Question 60

What level pertains to tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction and use, and of supporting psychological and educational fields such as statistics, individual differences, psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, and guidance (e.g., aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations)?

Answer 60

Level B

Question 61

Require graduate-level coursework in psychology or education, and knowledge of psychometrics.

Answer 61

Level B

Question 62

What level pertains to tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields, together with supervised experience in the use of these devices (for instance, projective tests, individual mental tests).

Answer 62

Level C

Question 63

Require advanced training in psychology and supervised experience.

Answer 63

Level C

Question 64

Test takers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what (if any) information will be released to whom. With full knowledge of such information, test takers give their informed consent to be tested.

Answer 64

The right of informed consent

Question 65

Test takers have a right to be informed (in language they can understand) of the nature of the findings concerning a test they have taken. They are also entitled to know what recommendations are being made as a consequence of the test data. If the test results, findings, or recommendations made based on test data are voided for any reason (such as irregularities in the test administration), test takers have a right to know that as well.

Answer 65

The right to be informed of test findings

Question 66

The concept of the privacy right “recognizes the freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he/she wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions” Confidentiality may be distinguished from privilege in that, whereas “confidentiality concerns matters of communication outside the courtroom, privilege protects clients from disclosure in judicial proceedings.”

Answer 66

The right to privacy and confidentiality

Question 67

The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test results.

Answer 67

The right to the least stigmatizing label