Chapter 4 (sections 4 & 5), Chapter 5 & Chapter 6 Flashcards
1
Q
T or F: Some animals have no form of chemical sense
A
F
2
Q
Olfactory perception accessory structures
A
nose, mouth, upper part of the throat
3
Q
Olfactory perception
A
recieves messages regarding smells, goes through the olfactory bulb in the brain, does not connect through the thalamus
4
Q
Gustatory perception accessory structure
A
mouth
5
Q
Gustatory perception
A
detects chemicals in solutions that contact receptors in the mouth, about 10,000 taste buds in a person’s mouth
6
Q
Tastebuds
A
grouped in structures called papillae, most on the tongue
7
Q
Most familiar elementary sensations for the tongue
A
sweet, sour, bitter, salty; produced by an interaction b/w taste and smell
8
Q
Where does transduction occur with touch?
A
in receptors or right below the skin
9
Q
How does the skin encode intensity of a stimulus?
A
firing rate of individual neurons, number of neurons stimulated
10
Q
perception
A
interpreting sensations using knowledge and understanding of the world
11
Q
psychophysics
A
concerned with measuring perception: present people with a stimulus and ask them to report their perception, how much stimulation
12
Q
threshold
A
boundary/level
13
Q
absolute threshold
A
the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time
14
Q
subliminal stimulation
A
below the absolute threshold–stimulus too weak/brief for us to notice
15
Q
supraliminal stimulation
A
above the absolute threshold–consistently detected/perceived
16
Q
difference threshold
A
smallest difference b/w stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
17
Q
JND
A
Just Noticeable Difference
18
Q
Weber’s Law
A
The difference threshold is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus with which the comparison is being made
19
Q
Fechner’s law
A
the stronger the stimulus/greater the magnitude of the stimulus, the bigger the change needed for a difference in stimulus intensity to be noticeable
20
Q
K (constant) for weight as a stimulus
A
.02 or 2%
21
Q
What school of thought conducted research on perception?
A
Gestalt Psychology
22
Q
Perceptual organization (definition)
A
to make sense out of the things you see, you must impose some sort of organization
23
Q
2 principles influencing perceptual organization
A
figure-ground & grouping
24
Q
figure-ground
A
we organize stimuli into a central/foreground figure and a background
25
grouping
we put things together into groups
26
figure
part of visual field that has meaning, stands in front of the rest
27
ground
background
28
Principles of Grouping
proximity, similarity, continuity, closure
29
proximity
closer objects/events are to one another perceived as belonging together
30
similarity
similar elements that look alike
31
continuity
creates a continuous form/pattern
32
closure
filling in missing contours to form a complete object
33
perceptual set
a readiness to perceive stimuli in a certain way. Expectation, culture or experience can influence your perceptions, can impact a person's perception of an object
34
perceptual constancies
allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under varying conditions, experience a stable perception, even though sensory output is changing you see things as the same
35
size constancy
changes in size of a retinal image, not change in actual size
36
shape constancy
the perceived shape of an object remains the same, even when seen at different angles
37
brightness/color constancy
brightness or color of object remains the same under different conditions or illumination, object seen as bright/same color regardless of lighting conditions
38
depth perception
distance between objects
39
binocular depth cues
require use of both eyes
40
eye convergence
produced by feedback from the muscles in your eyes. your eyes rotate inwards to view a close object or project it onto the retina
41
binocular disparity aka retinal display
each eye sees a different image, slight viewing angle in each eye
42
monocular depth cues
cues about distance that require only one eye
43
linear perspective
perception that parallel lines converge in the distance
44
interposition/partial overlap
objects closer to us may cut off part of your view of more distant objects
45
elevation
height in horizontal plane
46
texture gradient
closer objects have greater detail
47
relative size
if 2 objects are of smaller size, the one that looks smaller will be judged to be farther away
48
non-pictorial cue > motion parallax
if we are moving, nearby objects appear to move faster than ones farther off
49
ocular accomadation
changes in the ability of the lens to change its shape
50
depth perception in infancy
when do we perceive depth? fear and avoidance of dangerous depth don't develop until an infant is old enough to crawl
51
perception of movement/motion
important: whether an object is moving, how fast it is going and where it is heading
51
perception of movement/motion
important: whether an object is moving, how fast it is going and where it is heading
52
2 types of motion
real motion, apparent motion
52
2 types of motion
real motion, apparent motion
53
real motion
physical displacement of an object from one position to another
53
real motion
physical displacement of an object from one position to another
54
looming (real motion)
involves a rapid expansion in the size of an image so it fills the retina. you interpret the stimulus as it's approaching
54
looming (real motion)
involves a rapid expansion in the size of an image so it fills the retina. you interpret the stimulus as it's approaching
55
apparent motion
perceive motion when there is none
55
habitation
simplest form of learning, decrease in response to unchanging stimuli over time
56
stroboscopic illusion (apparent motion)
illusion of movement/motion, created when we see slightly different images of slightly displaced lights flashed in rapid succession
56
stroboscopic illusion (apparent motion)
illusion of movement/motion, created when we see slightly different images of slightly displaced lights flashed in rapid succession
57
autokinetic illusion (apparent motion)
perceived motion created by a single stationary object, caused by slight movement of eye muscles
57
autokinetic illusion (apparent motion)
perceived motion created by a single stationary object, caused by slight movement of eye muscles
58
illusions
compelling but incorrect perceptions, doesn't correspond to reality, visual stimuli that fool the eye
58
illusions
compelling but incorrect perceptions, doesn't correspond to reality, visual stimuli that fool the eye
59
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior and understanding due to experience
59
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior and understanding due to experience
60
Additional terminology of classical conditioning (2)
acquisition, trial
61
classical conditioning
making an association between 2 stimuli (by pairing them) such that 1 stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally elicited by the other stimulus
62
Ivan Pavlov
Russian psychologist who taught dogs to salivate to tone
63
Basic terminology of classical conditioning (5)
neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,conditioned stimulus (same as NS), conditioned response
64
Neutral stimulus
stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response in an organism
65
forward trace
the NS appears and then disappears and then the UCS is presented a fraction to 1-2 secs later
66
Unconditioned response
not learned response. a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus w/o prior learning
67
Conditioned stimulus
learned stimulus. a stimulus that, through association w/a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR
68
Conditioned response
learned response, a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
69
Additional terminology of classical conditioning (2)
acquisition, trial
70
stimulus generalization (c. conditioning)
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
71
trial
each time NS & UCS is presented together
72
types of interval pairings (4)
forward short-delay, forward trace, simultaneous, backward
73
forward short-delay
NS appears 1st and is still present when the UCS appears
74
psychologists involved in operant conditioning
E.L. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner
75
simultaneous
the UCS is presented before the NS
76
when is classical conditioning the strongest
there are repeating NS-UCS pairings, short time b/w NS & UCS
77
extinction (classical conditioning)
a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear
78
spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)
the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period & w/o new learning trials
79
stimulus generalization
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
80
discrimination (c. conditioning)
a CR occurs in the prescence of 1 stimulus but not others
81
higher-order conditioning
occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS, produces a CR that is weaker & extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR. can be thought of as replacing UCS
82
instrumental and operant conditioning (definition)
behavior is controlled by its consequences, making an association b/w response and consequence(s)
83
psychologists involved in operant conditioning
E.L. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner
84
Thorndike studied [blank].
the process by which animals utilize trial and error to achieve desired outcome. studied animals' intelligence & ability to solve problems
85
Law of Effect
a response followed by a satisfying consequence is strenghened & more likely to be repeated, a response followed by an annoying consequence is weakened and less likely to be repeated
95
Skinner box
a special chamber used to study operant conditioning experimentally
96
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
distinguishes between 2 types of behavior
97
respondent behavior
stimulus elicits a response, focuses on antecedents of behavior, behavior seen in classical conditioning
98
operant behavior
stimulus emits a response, focus on consequences of behavior, behavior studied in operant conditioning
99
reinforcement
increase in behavior (process)
100
reinforcer
stimulus given or removed (object)
101
punishment
decrease in behavior
102
positive reinforcement
increase in behavior by GIVING something pleasant
103
negative reinforcement
increase in behavior by REMOVING something unpleasant
104
primary reinforcer
stimulus that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. ex: food & water
105
secondary reinforcer
learned through classical conditioning, stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through their association w/ a primary reinforcer. ex: money and praise
106
Positive reinforcer
pleasant stimulus that is given
107
Negative reinforcer
aversive stimulus that is removed/avoided
108
punishment
response weakened by an outcome that follows it
109
positive punishment
decrease in behavior by GIVING something unpleasant
110
negative punishment
decrease in behavior by REMOVING something pleasant
111
drawbacks of punishment
can become aggression if given in anger, does not "erase" an undesirable habit, can produce unwanted side effects
112
effective punishment - basic principles
must occur after every transgression, must be swift, must be sufficient, should always include instructions
113
additional terminology of operant conditioning (8)
acquisition, shaping, schedule of reinforcement, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, Premack's principle escape v avoidance conditioning
114
acquisition (c. conditioning)
the period during which a response is being learned, measured in trials
115
acquistion (o. conditioning)
amount of time it takes to make association b/w response & consequence. wait for a behavior and then reinforce it
116
shaping
reinforcing successive approximations towards a final response
117
schedule of reinforcement
timetable for determining when a behavior should get reinforcement
118
continuous
reinforce every correct response, very fast learning, very fast extinction
119
partial/intermittent
only a fraction of the time that the behavior is engaged in will be reinforced
120
fixed v variable reinforcement
set v changing
121
ratio v interval
behavior (response) v time
122
four partial schedules of reinforcement
fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
123
fixed ratio
reinforce set number of correct responses
124
fixed interval
reinforce at set time intervals (have to engage in behavior first)
125
variable ratio
reinforce unpredictable, changing number of correct responses, average responses
126
variable interval
reinforce at unpredictable changing time intervals, average time
127
partial reinforcement effect
variable schedules make behaviors resistant to extinction, quickest learning under continuous schedule, but extinction occurs quickly under continuous, stronger response rate with variable schedules, weaker response rate with fixed interval
128
extinction (o. conditioning)
the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced
129
extinction burst
behavior increases rapidly before it decreases during operant extinction
130
spontaneous recovery (o. conditioning)
an extinguished response returns w/o reinforcement after a delay in presentation of stimulus
131
generalization (o. conditioning)
an operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is similar to the original one
132
discrimination (o. conditioning)
an operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another
133
Premack's principle
reinforcing a less desired behavior w/a more desired one, also called "Grandma's Rule"
134
Escape (o. conditioning)
learning to end painful stimuli, painful stimulus is present
135
avoidance (o. conditioning)
responding to a signal to avoid a painful stimulus, painful stimulus is never present
