Chapter 5 Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
is not only concerned with studying what is right or wrong in human conduct.
A
Ethics
2
Q
also investigates how man ought to behave in a specific and concrete situation by examining his conduct in the light of various norms that guide his moral judgment.
A
ethics
3
Q
do not only imply the moral
obligation on the part of the actor or doer of such action.
A
“ought to behave”
4
Q
consists of conformity and non-conformity of human conduct with norms.
A
Morality
5
Q
In the light of Traditional Ethics, these norms are called the “_________________”
A
“dictates of reason”.
6
Q
is defined as the quality of a thing
manifesting its conformity and non-conformity with its norms or criteria.
A
Morality
7
Q
________ defined the ____________ as
“the criteria of judgment about the sort of persons we ought to be and the sort of actions we ought to perform.”
A
R. Gula
norms of morality
8
Q
These are standards that indicate the rightfulness or wrongfulness, the goodness or badness, the value or disvalue
of a thing.
A
norms of morality
9
Q
Traditional ethics considers ____________ as the proximate norms of morality.
A
Conscience
10
Q
It is defined as the practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual act as good and to be followed or as evil and
therefore, to be avoided.
A
Conscience
11
Q
is the nearest criterion in terms of evaluating human conduct.
A
Conscience
12
Q
It tells us further that a thing is good and should be followed, and some things are evil and thus should be avoided.
A
Conscience
13
Q
Types of Conscience:
A
- Antecedent conscience
- Consequent conscience
- True conscience
- Erroneous conscience
- Certain conscience
- Doubtful conscience
- Scrupulous conscience
- Lax conscience
14
Q
is a judgment before an action is done. Its main functions are to command, to advise, to forbid, and to permit.
A
Antecedent conscience
15
Q
is a judgment after an act is done. It bears the following effects: inner peace and remorse.
A
Consequent conscience
16
Q
is a conscience that judges things that truly are. Knowledge and the sense of responsibility for one’s actions help greatly in forming a correct conscience.
A
True conscience
17
Q
is also called ____________ . It judges things in a distorted manner since it considers bad acts as good and good acts as bad.
A
Erroneous conscience
false conscience
18
Q
is a subjective certainly of legality of particular actions to be done of to be omitted. This is the kind of conscience that moralists recommend to be always followed by man.
A
Certain conscience
19
Q
moralists recommend that this kind of conscience should not be followed unless the person has resolved the doubt.
A
Doubtful conscience
20
Q
is one which sees wrong where there is none. It is a conscience which is extremely austere; it is always scared to commit evil.
A
Scrupulous conscience
21
Q
is the opposite of scrupulous conscience. It is the kind of conscience which fails to see wrong where there is wrong. This conscience categorically needs a right education.
A
Lax conscience
22
Q
Ethics considers this as _______________ . It reflects what the thing is in accordance with its nature.
A
Natural Law
remote norm of morality
23
Q
According to Traditional Ethics, everything has been made with a specific ________ and a _________.
A
Natural Law
nature
purpose
24
Q
St Thomas of Aquinas believes that the purpose is___________.
A
Natural Law
always good.
25
A ________ therefore, is what benefits the nature
of man; a _______ is one that does not benefit man’s nature. An action, therefore, is good or bad depending
on its __________ to the act’s nature in relation to its purpose or end.
Natural Law
good act
bad act
conformity
26
Traditional Ethics considers eternal law or the divine law as the _______________
Eternal Law
ultimate norm of morality.
27
“the divine wisdom directing all actions and movement.”
For St. Thomas Aquinas
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“the divine reason or will of God”
For St. Augustine
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commanding the observance and forbidding the disturbance of the natural order of things.
Eternal Law
moral obligation
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provides for the cosmic order where every
creature stands different and independent from each other but not apart from the unified purpose of creation.
Eternal Law
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Business Application
* Ideally, the 3 norms of morality according to Traditional Ethics must be able to guide our business decision-making process. However, these three criteria are not widely accepted by decision makers.
* Common sense directs that the” dictates of reason” should be enough to guide our evaluation between the action that we perform and the norms that determine what is acceptable and what is not in our human behavior.
32
* Ideally, the ___________ according to Traditional Ethics must be able to guide our business decision-making process. However, these three criteria are ____________ by ____________.
3 norms of morality
not widely accepted
decision makers
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* ___________ directs that the” ___________ ” should be enough to guide our evaluation between the action that we perform and the norms that determine what is acceptable and what is not in our human behavior.
Common sense
dictates of reason
34
Kant believes that reason is _____________.
Kant Moral Rationalism
autonomous
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For him, reason is “____________” of everything.
Kant Moral Rationalism
“the be-all end-all”
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Kant maintained that all truths and all knowledge are derived from __________.And therefore, all laws and all moral principles also came from __________.
Kant Moral Rationalism
human reason
moral reason
37
According to Kant, ___________, and we must
obey it without questioning. In effect, Kant is proposing an _________ , which for him requires ___________
Kant Moral Rationalism
reason commands
absolute morality
absolute obedience.
38
For Kant morality is;
* A priori (Not based on and not derived from experience)
* It is universal (It applies to everybody)
* It is absolute (Moral laws are complete and fixed)
* Moral laws are immutable (Moral laws cannot be changed)
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(Not based on and not derived from experience)
A priori
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(It applies to everybody)
It is universal
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(Moral laws are complete and fixed)
It is absolute
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(Moral laws cannot be changed)
Moral laws are immutable
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Kant was probably best known for his theory about a_______, ________________ that explains all other moral
obligations we have.
Kant Categorical Imperative
single, general moral obligation
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Kant argues that since morality is a product
of _______, the obedience to this command is ______ and _______because it is ____________.
Kant Categorical Imperative
reason
true
binding
beyond experience.
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is an unconditional obligation, or an obligation that we have regardless of our will or desires.
categorical imperative
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Moral duties can be derived from the categorical imperative which can be formulated in 3 ways.
* Formula of Universal Law
* Formula of Humanity
* Formula of Autonomy
47
This theory is saying that we have ___________ despite of one’s subjective imperatives that seek to
fulfil one’s happiness instead of these duties.
universal duties,
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Business Application
* Kant introduces the importance of humanistic dimension into business decisions. Treat human beings not as means to an end, because human beings have ends in objectives.
* Kant stresses the importance of motives and of acting principles. Business decisions are based sometimes on personal convictions and principles regardless of the outcomes or results.
* Kant categorical imperatives gives us the firm rules to follow in moral decision making, rules that do not depend on circumstances or results and that do not permit individual exceptions. No matter what the consequences may be or who does it, some actions are always wrong.
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* Kant introduces the importance of ____________ into ___________. Treat human beings not as __________, because human beings have __________.
humanistic dimension
business decisions
means to an end
ends in objectives
50
* Kant stresses the importance of ______ and of ________. Business decisions are based sometimes on _______________ and ___________ regardless of the outcomes or results.
motives
acting principles
personal convictions
principles
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* Kant _______________ gives us the firm rules to follow in moral decision making, rules that do not depend on circumstances or results and that do not permit individual exceptions. No matter what the consequences may be or who does it, some actions are _________.
categorical imperatives
always wrong.
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“The end justifies the means.”
Machiavellian Principle (Niccolo Machiavelli)
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referring to gaining and maintaining political power, and in the process of creating a strong republic.
Machiavellian Principle (Niccolo Machiavelli)
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The principle is found in ________
Machiavellian Principle (Niccolo Machiavelli)
The Prince
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is one of the dark triad personalities, characterized by a two-faced interpersonal style, a cynical disregard for morality, a lack of empathy, and focuses on self-interest and personal gain.
Machiavellianism
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Business Application
* On Management. A management style where all employees are required to work very hard, no matter what it takes, just to achieve the bottom line, could be a scenario of applying the Machiavellian principle. The employees sacrifice their time for family, relationships with others, and with God to comply with the demands of the competitive work environment. Some may be required to leave their home to be assigned to a far destination accessible to the demands of the job, but not to the requirements of good family life.
Indirectly, the means to achieve the goal of a corporation takes all measures, even changing the lifestyle of a person
* On the Individual. In meeting the demands of a job to make both ends meet or to provide for a comfortable life for the family, people tend to prioritize their time for work over time for family. They intend to give the best to the family in terms of material things, but in the process, they sacrifice quality time for the family. In effect, the good objective of providing family becomes the excuse for neglecting other responsibilities. Even if they want to ensure a better life for their family by working hard, if home life is overlooked, they may have no family to offer the fruits of working hard. The end does not justify the means.
* On Leadership. Sometimes, an autocratic leadership style is necessary in running an organization. Although the democratic leadership style has its benefits, it may not work in some instances, and in some organizations. At times, we need a strong autocratic leader to motivate people, to attain the goal of the
state or organization.
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where all employees are required to work very hard, no matter what it takes, just to achieve the bottom line, could be a scenario of applying the Machiavellian principle. The employees sacrifice their time for family, relationships with others, and with God to comply with the demands of the competitive work environment. Some may be required to leave their home to be assigned to a far destination accessible to the demands of the job, but not to the requirements of good family life. Indirectly, the means to achieve the goal of a corporation takes all measures, even changing the lifestyle of a person
Management
58
In meeting the demands of a job to make both ends meet or to provide for a comfortable life for the family, people tend to prioritize their time for work over time for family. They intend to give the best to the family in terms of material things, but in the process, they sacrifice quality time for the family. In effect, the good objective of providing family becomes the excuse for neglecting other responsibilities. Even if they want to ensure a better life for their family by working hard, if home life is overlooked, they may have no family to offer the fruits of working hard. The end does not justify the means.
Individual
59
is necessary in running an organization. Although the democratic leadership style has its benefits, it may not work in some instances, and in some organizations. At times, we need a strong autocratic leader to motivate people, to attain the goal of the
state or organization.
Leadership
60
is considered the most important consequentialist theory, whose principle is best explained by the maxim “Do whatever produces the greatest good for the greatest number”. The theory also argues that what makes an act right is the consequences and not the motive of the action.
Utilitarian ethics
61
the effects or consequences determine the goodness or badness of an action. In other words, an act is considered to be moral if it results in good consequences; otherwise immoral.
Utilitarian
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The two main proponents of the principle
* Jeremy Bentham
* John Stuart Mill
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it means that properly in any objects which tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness.
Jeremy Bentham
utility
64
The ______________ according to Bentham can be coined in the phrase “The greatest good is the greatest pleasure of the greatest number”. This simply implies that an action is considered to be good if it gives the person the greatest pleasure or happiness to the majority of people affected by an action. An action is bad or evil if it does otherwise.
Jeremy Bentham
Utilitarian Principle
65
believes that human beings pursue happiness naturally and will avoid pain or suffering. He concluded that since man naturally seeks happiness and avoids pain, that what constitute good moral is happiness and pain constitute moral evil.
John Stuart Mill
66
happiness is not merely the happiness of one person but rather the happiness of the greater number of people. The amount of happiness becomes greater if a greater number of people experience it. An act that can make many people happy is better than an act that gives happiness to only one or a few people.
To the Utilitarian
67
refers to the mental pleasures when it defines happiness as pleasures. Happiness pursues mental pleasures and this is what differentiates utilitarianism from hedonism. Human beings desire greater pleasure because man has faculties more elevated than those of animals.
Mill’s utilitarian
68
Business Application
* This principle can be used in Cost-Benefit Analysis.
* The principle can also be used in the formulation of budgets.
* Utilitarianism as a guide in decision making can also be applied in the resolution of labor and management conflicts.
* Utilitarianism as an ethical principle can also be used in the calculation of opportunity costs.
69
* This principle can be used in ____________.
Cost-Benefit Analysis
70
* The principle can also be used in the ______________.
formulation of budgets
71
* Utilitarianism as a guide in decision making can also be applied in the _____________ and ___________.
resolution of labor
management conflicts
72
* Utilitarianism as an ethical principle can also be used in the _________________.
calculation of opportunity costs
73
believes that human beings are selfish creatures who would do anything to improve their position. People would act on their evil impulses if left alone. People, nations are selfishly motivated. For him, each country is in a constant battle for power and wealth.
Thomas Hobbes
74
According to Hobbes, ____________ are created to protect people from their selfishness and evil.
Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)
governments
75
is one that has the great power of a leviathan, or sea monster.
Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)
best government
76
Hobbes believed in the _________ because he felt that a country needs an authority figure to provide direction and leadership.
Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)
rule of a king
77
Because the people are only interested in promoting their __________
Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)
self-interest.
78
Hobbes believed that allowing ________ would _________.
Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)
democracy
never work
79
Consequently, giving _______ to __________ would create a dangerous situation that would start “a war of every man
against every man” and make life “solitary, poor, brutish, and short.”
power\individuals
80
anticipates the chaotic outcome if laws are not abided.
Hobbes' moral positivism
81
it is a must for every nation to have someone who would _______ and ___________
manage and administer them.
82
are important in the order and maintenance of peace in countries.
creation of laws and the obedience of its subjects
83
Business Application
* Businesses must follow the laws of the state and government regulations.
* Business enterprises must create company policies to maintain discipline and order within the organization.
* Businessmen and managers must be law-abiding citizens.
* A strong authority figure is sometimes necessary in organizations to dissuade people from doing evil things and prevent discord.
84
* Businesses must follow the _______________ and ____________.
laws of the state
government regulations.
85
* Business enterprises must create ___________ to maintain __________ and _____ within the organization.
company policies
discipline
order
86
* Businessmen and managers must be ____________.
law-abiding citizens.
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A _____________ is sometimes necessary in organizations to dissuade people from doing _________ and __________.
strong authority figure
evil things
prevent discord
88
This theory says that there is a divine being who has set down a finite series of rules that adherents claim can provide guidance to most, if not all, moral decisions.
Divine Command Ethics
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the Judeo-Christian traditions.
Ten Commandments
90
Buddhist religion
“the enlightened.”
91
In both cases of the Judeo-Christian religion and the Buddhist religion, the logic of teaching is the _____.
same
92
assume belief in either divine beings or exemplary individuals. The theory emphasizes the authority of a divine being in establishing moral norms, rather than focusing on human reason, intuition, or the actions of exemplary individuals as the basis for morality. This theory and belief can be questioned because not all people believe that God exists.
Divine Command Theory
93
For the _____________, it is simply a matter of seeing the ____.
true believer
light
94
cannot cover all possible case of moral decision.
Divine Command theories
95
which merely states that the extensions of the basic rules to other cases are unproblematic, or it leads to differences in interpretation of the basic rules and therefore differences in people’s moral laws.
fundamentalism
96
generally have no exception clause, either explicit or implicit. This is a problem for people living in morally complicated times. It is believed that the very need for exceptions to reveal the truth is a
sign of decadent times, and perhaps a greater adherence to the rules will lead to a more morally sound society.
Divine Command theory
97
Business Application
* For Christian believers, a good action is an action that conforms to the commandments of God as reflected in the Bible and the teachings of the church.
* For non-Christians, a good action conforms to the teachings of exemplary non-divine beings like the Buddha and the Prophet Mohammad.
98
a good action is an action that conforms to the commandments of God as reflected in the Bible and the teachings of the church.
Christian believers
99
a good action conforms to the teachings of exemplary non-divine beings like the Buddha and the Prophet Mohammad.
non-Christians
100
G. Virtue Ethics:
1. Socrates
2. Plato
3. Aristotle
101
Ethical Philosophy
Socrates
102
Socrates posited 3 special tenets in his moral philosophy;
* Virtue is identical with knowledge
* Vice is identical with ignorance
* No one commits an evil act knowingly
103
_______ is identical with knowledge
Virtue
104
____ is identical with ignorance
Vice
105
No one commits an _____________
evil act knowingly
106
“no one commits an evil act knowingly and doing wrong
arises out of ignorance.”
Socrates
107
The reason for this is that sometimes, a person may know, but he deliberately commits an evil act to satisfy his hidden motive. Thus, a person should not use ignorance to excuse himself for doing evil.
But on the other hand, he stated that a person will commit only moral evil if he lacks moral knowledge, believing that wrongdoing stems from a lack of understanding, not a conscious choice to do harm
Socrates
108
Business Application
In the business world, employees make critical decisions that have an impact on the operation of the company. The result might lead to uncertainty. For example, when a company considers salary increases, the moral focus should be on the positive impact on employee families and well-being, rather than solely on the company's financial operations, even if it means temporarily diverting funds.
109
there are internal or universal principles and perfect ideas. He maintained that all things in the physical world are symbols of these _________ in the __________. And since these
Forms are symbol, the world is ________.
Plato
perfect Forms
World of Ideas
not a true reality
110
_______ also believe that People are __________. However, they make judgment through______________. This then results to a moral conflict. People do not choose an evil act because they are acting due to ignorance.
Plato
intrinsically good
irrational part of the soul
111
The Tripartite Soul:
1. Reason:
2. Spirit:
3. Appetite:
112
Represents wisdom and rationality, guiding the soul towards good.
Reason
113
Represents courage and emotions, often acting as a mediator between reason and appetite.
Spirit
114
Represents basic desires and instincts, which can lead to irrational behavior.
Appetite
115
Business Application
Plato's ethical theories can be applied in business. For example, in business decision making, an outcome is acceptable only if it is done in the light of a reasonable process according to Plato’s concept of a virtuous act. For Plato, the right action, and thus, a moral action, is guided by reason. In addition, Plato believes that a reasonable and a virtuous action is not dominated by the evil or the appetite of the person.
116
we must take the middle way or the mean between two extremes. He also rejected all forms of _________. He believed that virtues, such as courage, honesty, and generosity, lie in the
middle ground between opposing vices.
Aristotle
imbalance
117
is the mean between recklessness (excess)
Aristotle
courage
118
(deficiency).
Aristotle
cowardice
119
We must not only develop our _____ but also our _______.
Aristotle
minds
bodies
120
comes from the ability to govern
excessive or a lack of feelings.
Aristotle
Virtue
121
Any _______ would lead to _____.
Aristotle
extremes
vice
122
comes from the mean between these
extremes.
Aristotle
Virtue
123
simply states that “to be happy, one must live a life of moderation”.
Aristotle
Golden Mean Principle
124
Aristotle believed that living a life of virtue and finding the golden mean is essential for achieving
"__________," which is often translated as "flourishing" or "living well".
eudaimonia
125
"flourishing" or "living well".
eudaimonia
126
Example:
Extreme: Recklessness
Moderate Setting: Courage
Extreme: Cowardice
127
Extreme:
Recklessness
128
Moderate Setting:
Courage
129
Extreme:
Cowardice
130
Business Application
* The principle of Aristotle has many applications in business decisions. For example, in production planning and inventory control, finished goods and raw materials must be carefully controlled so that the company does not occur too much cost. If there are too much finished goods and raw materials, inventory warehouse cost is high while lack of finished goods or raw materials would entail a high
opportunity loss and delay in manufacturing.
* The Principle of Moderation can also be used in determining and planning for profit in business.
* Virtuous conduct is important in decision making but also in maintaining moral ascendancy and personal
integrity.
* Success in business is not only measured in terms of profit but also by the company’s moral integrity and
credibility.
131
has many applications in business decisions. For example, in production planning and inventory control, finished goods and raw materials must be carefully controlled so that the company does not occur too much cost. If there are too much finished goods and raw materials, inventory warehouse cost is high while lack of finished goods or raw materials would entail a high opportunity loss and delay in manufacturing.
principle of Aristotle
132
can also be used in determining and planning for profit in business.
Principle of Moderation
133
is important in decision making but also in maintaining moral ascendancy and personal
integrity.
Virtuous conduct
134
is not only measured in terms of profit but also by the company’s moral integrity and
credibility.
Success in business
135
is a philosophy that attempts to clarify our ideas and to emphasize the practical usefulness of ideas and beliefs as the criteria for truth.
Pragmatism
136
is a philosophy that bridges the gap between empiricism and rationalism.
Pragmatism
137
As a school of thought, pragmatism maintains the following assumptions;
* To be valid, all theories must be put into practice.
* There must be a close connection between thinking and acting.
* Ideas to regard as true must be useful.
* For ideas to be significant, there must be a practical result.
138
Pragmatism
1. Charles Sanders Peirce
2. William James
3. James Dewey
139
focused his pragmatism on logic and science. For him there must be a connectivity between idea and action. He said that our ideas are clear and distinct only when we can translate them into some kind of meaningful action.
Charles Sanders Peirce
140
contends by saying that in the logical analysis of meanings - an idea that is useful in solving difference between two prepositions is significant. For him, if an idea is not useful in solving problem, then it does not have any significance at all.
Charles Sanders Peirce
141
He focused his Pragmatism on Psychology and Religion. For him, pragmatism is an inquiry into the practical meaning and events and issues. James argue that a thing is true only if it works. He contends by saying that “an idea is only true if it does what you want it to do”. In other words, an idea is true or good only in so far as it has what He called “a practical cash value”. From he point of view, pragmatism is a philosophy that associates
truth with practical results.
William James
142
He based his pragmatism on ethics and sociology. He called his version of Pragmatism “Instrumentalism” or “Experientialism”. Influenced by Darwin, he based his ideas on the concept of evolution and believed that man can achieve moral progress and create an ideal society through improvement in education. For him, knowledge and practice are instrument of doing well. He also believes that theories must be put into action and should yield desirable and predictable consequences.
James Dewey
143
Business Application
* Business plans remains to be plans unless they are executed and implemented.
* Pragmatism as a philosophy seems to imply that the right solution to any problem becomes the practical solution and therefore the moral solution.
* In business decision making, the concept of cash value is always considered.
144
Business plans remains to be _____ unless they are ______ and _________.
plans
executed
implemented
145
Pragmatism as a philosophy seems to imply that the _______ to any problem becomes the ________ and therefore the _____________
right solution
practical solution
moral solution
146
In business decision making, the concept of cash value is always __________.
considered
