chapter 8 Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
- Sets of objects that belong together
- Considered to be “partly” equal
A
Category
2
Q
Different objects can be grouped together because of their _____
A
functions
3
Q
- Mental representations of a category
- Allow individuals to organize their knowledge, make inferences, and categorize objects based on their functions and characteristics
A
Concept
4
Q
- Formed through experiences
- Plays a crucial role in semantic memory
A
Concept
5
Q
We make sense of our cognition based on the situation we are in
A
Situated Cognition Approach
6
Q
- Long-term memory that is responsible for storing general knowledge
- Allow us to organize objects we encounter
A
Semantic Memory
7
Q
Eleanor Rosch’s theory: we organize each category on the basis of a prototype
A
The Prototype Approach
8
Q
the item that is the best, most typical example of a category
A
Prototype
9
Q
you decide whether a particular item belongs to a category by comparing this item with a prototype
A
Prototype Approach
10
Q
degree to which they are representative of their category
A
Prototypicality
11
Q
begins with the most representative or prototypical members, and it continues on through the category’s non-prototypical members
A
Graded structure
12
Q
Characteristics of Prototypes
A
- Prototypes are supplied as examples of a category
- Prototypes are judged more quickly than non-prototypes, after semantic priming
- Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category
13
Q
occurs when people judge typical items (prototypes) faster than items that are not typical (non-prototypes)
A
Typicality Effect
14
Q
people respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning
A
Semantic Priming Effect
15
Q
_____ facilitates people’s responses to prototypes significantly more than it facilitated responses to non-prototypes
A
semantic priming
16
Q
no single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept; however, each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept
A
Family resemblance
17
Q
Levels of Categorization
A
- Superordinate-level categories
- Basic-level categories
- Subordinate-level categories
18
Q
Levels of Categorization: means that they are higher-level or more general categories
A
Superordinate-level categories
19
Q
Levels of Categorization: moderately specific
A
Basic-level categories
20
Q
Levels of Categorization: refer to lower-level or more specific categories
A
Subordinate-level categories
21
Q
the best example of a category; a category that is neither too general nor too specific
A
prototype; basic-level category
22
Q
T or F: People produce the superordinate or the subordinate names basic-level names faster than basic-level names
A
false; People produce the BASIC-LEVEL NAMES names faster than either the superordinate or the subordinate names
23
Q
a superordinate term (e.g., toy) is more likely than a basic-level term (e.g., doll) to activate part of the _____
A
prefrontal cortex
24
Q
this part of the cortex processes language and associative memory
A
prefrontal cortex
25
subordinate terms (e.g., rag doll) are more likely than basic-level terms (e.g., doll) to activate part of the _____ of the brain
parietal region
26
The _____ is active when you perform a visual search
parietal lobe
27
argues that we first learn information about some specific examples of a concept; we then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all of those specific examples
Exemplar Approach
28
each examples stored in memory
Exemplar
29
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: your concept of “dog” would include information about numerous examples of dogs you have known
Exemplar approach
30
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: your prototype of a dog would be an idealized representation of a dog, with average size for a dog and average other features—but not necessarily like any particular dog you’ve ever seen
Prototype approach
31
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: Categories are represented by a typical or ideal member
Prototype Approach
32
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: This approach is efficient for categories with numerous members, as it provides a simplified representation
Prototype Approach
33
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: categories are represented by a collection of specific instances
Exemplar Approach
34
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: This approach is suitable for categories with relatively few members and emphasizes retaining specific information about individual instances
Exemplar Approach
35
abstract representations derived from averaging the features of various category members
Prototypes
36
individual instances stored in memory, representing actual category members encountered in the past
Exemplars
37
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: efficient for large categories as it relies on the abstracts and may skip specific detail information
The Prototype Approach
38
Exemplar or Prototype Approach: efficient for smaller categories and may retain specific information
The Exemplar Approach
39
these approaches focus on categorization
Prototype and Exemplar approaches
40
these approaches are more concerned about the interconnections among related items
Network approaches
41
Network-style organization of concepts in memory, with numerous interconnections
Network Models
42
- Represents each concept in a network model
- One unit located within the network
Node
43
Activation expands or spreads from the node to other connected nodes
Spreading Activation
44
Developed the Classic Network Theory of Semantic Memory
Allan Collins & Elizabeth Loftus
45
He and his colleagues have constructed a series of networks, ACT-R
John Anderson
46
meaning of ACT-R
“Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational”
47
- This approach attempts to account for human performance on a wide variety of tasks
- Attempts to explain all of cognition
- Provides a way to explore assumptions and predictions about optimal human behavior
ACT-R
48
Knowledge about facts or things
Declarative knowledge
49
- Can represent the meaning of a sentence
- Pattern of interconnected proposition
Propositional Network
50
- Smallest unit of knowledge that people can judge to be either true or false
- Abstract, do not represent a specific set of words
Proposition
51
Through the _____, the sentences are represented by a _____
ACT-R Approach; propositional network
52
Incorporates neuroscientific principles as a way of providing an account of how a network can come to possess knowledge about the world through learning
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
53
Approach to understanding the relationship between learning, neural processing, and cognition
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
54
Proposes that cognitive processes can be represented by a model in which activation flows through networks that link together a large number of simple, neuron-like units
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
55
Activations occur in several different locations
Distributed
56
Activations take place simultaneously, rather than one another
Parallel
57
- Takes into account the physiological and structural properties of populations of human neurons
- How neurons send signals to each other
Connectionism & Neural Networks
58
Designers of the PDP approach, believe that earlier models of categorization were too restrictive
Timothy Rogers and James McClelland
59
The _____ provides a more flexible account for the richness, flexibility, and subtlety of our knowledge
PDP approach
60
4 General Characteristic of the PDP Approach
- Parallel distributed processing
- A network contains basic neuron-like units or nodes
- Spreading activation
- Situated cognition
61
Considered all attributes simultaneously
Parallel search
62
Using individual cases to draw inferences about general information
Spontaneous Generalization
63
Fill in missing information about a particular person/object by making a best guess
Default Assignment
64
if the connection weight is positive
Exciting
65
if the connection weight is negative
Inhibiting
66
You know which target you are seeking, but you cannot retrieve the actual target
Tip-of -the-tongue phenomenon
67
Brain’s ability to provide partial memory
Graceful degradations
68
- a generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, an event or a person
- the basic building blocks for representing our thoughts about people
Schema
69
_____ are helpful when psychologists explain how people process complex situations and events
Schema theories
70
A simple, well-structured sequence of events that usually occur in a specified order
Script
71
List of events that a person believes would be most important throughout his or her lifetime
Life Script
72
Our tendency to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown
Boundary Extension
73
Helene Intraub and her colleagues were the first to document this phenomenon
Boundary Extension Phenomenon
74
Stores the meaning of a message, rather than the exact word
Abstraction
75
Simpler version of a classic study of Bransford and Franks
The Constructive Approach
76
occurs when people “remember” an item that was not originally presented
False Alarm
77
People integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas
Constructive Model of Memory
78
Proposes that people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals
The Pragmatic Approach
79
People know that they usually need to accurately recall the gist of a sentence
Pragmatic View of Memory
80
T or F: Constructive approach and pragmatic approach to memory abstraction are compatible
true
81
_____ can store both general prototypes and specific exemplar-based information
Semantic memory
82
Our background knowledge encourages us to take in new information in a schema-consistent fashion
Memory Integration
83
argued that an individual’s unique interests and personal background often shape the contents of memory
Sir Frederick Bartlett
84
Our _____ processes often shape our memory for complex material
top-down
85
the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males
Gender Stereotypes
86
Directly instructs participants to remember information
Explicit Memory Task
87
Asks people to perform a cognitive task that does not directly ask for recall or recognition
Implicit Memory Task
88
two different implicit memory tasks that show how gender stereotypes can influence people’s implicit memory
- Neuroscience techniques
- Implicit Association Test
89
records tiny fluctuations in the brain’s electrical activity, in response to a stimulus
event-related potential (ERP) technique
90
based on the principle that people can mentally pair two related words together much more easily than they can pair two unrelated words
Implicit Association Test
