Chapter10&11 Flashcards
(275 cards)
1
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Balance or equilibrium
2
Q
What does homeostasis depend on?
A
Active regulation
3
Q
What role does the brain play in homeostasis?
A
Signals and coordination
4
Q
What region of the forebrain is involved in various functions?
A
Hypothalamus
5
Q
What do circadian rhythms influence?
A
Physiological systems
6
Q
How often do internal clocks operate?
A
24-hour period
7
Q
What physiological change occurs in the gut during the day?
A
Faster peristaltic waves
8
Q
What happens to blood pressure at night?
A
Dips
9
Q
What controls the shift between active and silent states?
A
Clock genes
10
Q
What organism were clock genes first identified in?
A
Drosophila melanogaster
11
Q
What do photoreceptors in the retina track?
A
Time signals
12
Q
Why is the nudge important?
A
Syncs clock proteins
13
Q
What happens to animals deprived of light?
A
Sleep/wake later
14
Q
What ties the SCN to other body clocks?
A
Autonomic neural pathway
15
Q
What does the SCN stimulate?
A
Paraventricular nucleus
16
Q
What regulates the body’s sleep/wake cycle?
A
Orexin neurons
17
Q
Which hormone influences sleep behaviors?
A
Melatonin
18
Q
Where is the pineal gland located?
A
Between cerebral hemispheres
19
Q
What sends signals to the pineal gland?
A
Electrical activity from SCN
20
Q
What hormone does the pineal gland secrete at night?
A
Melatonin
21
Q
What effect does melatonin have on alertness?
A
Reduces alertness
22
Q
What triggers the stop of melatonin secretion?
A
Light exposure
23
Q
What is the primary role of melatonin in relation to sleep?
A
Increases sleepiness
24
Q
What body function does melatonin help synchronize?
A
Body’s clocks
25
What hormone peaks in the blood when waking?
Cortisol
26
What happens to core body temperature upon waking?
Drifts upwards
27
What does an increase in cortisol lead to?
Increased appetite
28
What can desynchronization of body clocks cause?
Health effects
29
What is a common example of circadian rhythm disturbance?
Jet lag
30
What can cause disturbance in circadian rhythms?
Late-shift jobs, blindness
31
What helps to reset circadian rhythms after jet lag?
Local day/night cycle
32
What health problems are associated with long-term circadian disruptions?
Weight gain, insomnia, depression, cancers
33
How do hormones deliver messages in the body?
More slowly, wider impact
34
What role does the brain play in hormonal signaling?
Regulates secretion and behavior
35
What do coordinated body clocks enable?
Physiological systems to work together
36
What oversees hormone production and release?
Hypothalamus
37
What gland is closely tied to the hypothalamus?
Pituitary gland
38
Which nuclei send axons into the posterior pituitary?
Paraventricular and supraoptic
39
What hormones are released by specific neurons in the hypothalamus?
Vasopressin or oxytocin
40
What hormone increases water retention and constricts blood vessels?
Vasopressin
41
What hormone promotes uterine contractions and milk release?
Oxytocin
42
Where do hypothalamic regions send axons?
Median eminence
43
What do activated neurons release?
Hormones into blood
44
Where do the releasing hormones travel?
To the anterior pituitary
45
How many anterior pituitary hormones are trophic?
Five
46
What do trophic hormones stimulate?
Endocrine glands
47
What does growth hormone stimulate?
Growth of bone and soft tissues
48
What does prolactin stimulate?
Milk production
49
What are the effects of anterior pituitary hormones?
Growth, metabolism, emotion
50
What systems do pituitary hormones influence?
Reproduction, hunger, thirst, stress
51
Where do many pituitary hormones affect receptors?
Inside the brain
52
What does GnRH stimulate?
LH and FSH release
53
What do LH and FSH stimulate?
Gonads to secrete sex hormones
54
What does the negative feedback loop in the hypothalamus regulate?
Hormone release
55
What is the outcome of the three-hormone cascade?
Mature eggs or sperm development
56
What maintains homeostasis?
Neuroendocrine system
57
What does the adrenal gland release?
Norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol
58
What hormone is released from the hypothalamus?
Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)
59
What does CRH trigger in the pituitary gland?
Release of ACTH
60
What does ACTH stimulate?
Release of cortisol
61
Where does ACTH travel to?
Adrenal glands
62
How do sex hormones affect the hypothalamus?
Modify hormone release
63
Do sex hormones regulate feedback loops similarly in males and females?
Differently
64
What do male sex hormones induce?
Negative feedback loops
65
What hormones are reduced by male sex hormones?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
66
How often does the GnRH pulse peak?
Every 90 minutes
67
What do waxing and waning of GnRH maintain?
Testosterone levels
68
What is the pattern of female feedback on GnRH during the menstrual cycle?
Complex
69
Qué desencadena la maduración del óvulo?
Niveles de FSH
70
Qué induce a que los niveles de LH aumenten?
Aumento de los niveles de estrógenos
71
Qué produce el aumento repentino de LH?
Retroalimentación positiva
72
What occurs after ovulation regarding sex hormones?
Negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, LH
73
What happens to female sex hormone levels after ovulation?
Decrease
74
Do all hormones get regulated by the pituitary gland?
No
75
Where are many hormones released from?
Specific tissues
76
How do the brain receptors respond to hormones?
Do not regulate secretion
77
What hormones modify neural circuits?
Leptin and ghrelin
78
What do leptin and ghrelin regulate?
Food intake and energy balance
79
What effect do leptin and ghrelin have?
Affect hunger
80
What does ghrelin do?
Activates hunger circuits
81
When is ghrelin released?
When stomach is empty
82
What does leptin help maintain?
Body weight range
83
Where is leptin produced?
Fat cells
84
What does leptin do when it binds to neurons in the hypothalamus?
Suppresses hunger
85
What happens to leptin levels as fat stores are used up?
Leptin levels decline
86
What are common stress reactions?
Faster breathing and heartbeat
87
Why did stress reactions evolve?
To escape predators
88
What is the stress response?
Reaction to threats
89
What systems are involved in the stress response?
Nervous systems, muscles, metabolism
90
What is the goal of the stress response?
Defensive goal
91
What system primes the body for fight-or-flight?
Somatic nervous system
92
What redirects nutrients and oxygen to muscles?
Autonomic nervous system
93
What hormone does the sympathetic branch release?
Epinephrine
94
What effect does epinephrine have on the heart?
Increases heart rate
95
What does epinephrine do to arterial walls?
Relaxes them
96
What does the autonomic system’s parasympathetic branch restrict?
Blood flow to organs
97
What do neuroendocrine hormones affect?
Metabolic rate and sexual function
98
Where do glucocorticoid hormones like cortisol come from?
Adrenal cortex
99
How many muscles are in the body?
1070 muscles
100
What do stress hormones do?
Ramp up attention and learning
101
What does the body inhibit during stress?
Nonessential functions
102
What do adrenal glands release during chronic stress?
Epinephrine and glucocorticoids
103
What can chronic stress lead to in muscles?
Atrophy
104
How does chronic stress affect fat storage?
Increases storage as fat
105
What effect does chronic stress have on blood sugar?
Keeps high
106
What conditions can be worsened by chronic glucocorticoid exposure?
Diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis
107
How do hormones affect the immune system?
Reduce resistance to infection
108
What is a negative effect of chronic stress on brain tissue?
Impair memory formation
109
What do high levels of glucocorticoids inhibit?
Neuron growth in hippocampus
110
How do stress hormones affect decision-making?
Suppress neural pathways
111
What effect do stress hormones have on aging?
Speed deterioration
112
What complication can stress hormones worsen after a stroke?
Damage caused
113
How do stress hormones affect sleep?
Delay sleep
114
What can induced insomnia lead to?
Vicious cycle of stress
115
What do glucocorticoids influence during chronic stress?
Brain development
116
How can chronic stress in a pregnant woman affect her fetus?
Shift developmental trajectory
117
What role do glucocorticoids play in gene expression?
Transcription factors
118
What are the effects of high glucocorticoid levels during pregnancy?
Lower birth weights, developmental delays.
119
Why might glucocorticoids prepare a fetus for stressful environments?
Develop stress-sensitive 'thrifty' metabolisms.
120
What increases risk of chronic metabolic diseases?
Stress-sensitive metabolisms
121
Which diseases are linked to stress-sensitive metabolisms?
Obesity, diabetes
122
What can influence stress effects across generations?
Epigenetic mechanisms
123
What changes due to chronic stress?
DNA markers
124
What can changes in egg or sperm cells affect?
Offspring traits
125
What might chronic stress affect in humans?
Gene inheritance
126
What illnesses may be linked to changes in genes?
Cancer, obesity, etc.
127
What negative effects can chronic stress have?
Brain function
128
What percentage of people with autism have normal or above-average intelligence?
More than 40%
129
What are common comorbid conditions with autism?
Mood disorders, ADHD, OCD
130
Is autism considered a spectrum condition?
Yes
131
What are the two main criteria for diagnosing ASD?
Impaired social communication and repetitive behaviors
132
How do some adults view their autism?
As a strength
133
What might people on the autism spectrum struggle with?
Social communication
134
Prevalence of ASD in American 8-year-olds
1 in 68
135
ASD prevalence trend since 1970s
Risen dramatically
136
Diagnosis rate disparity in ASD
More in boys
137
Potential factors for ASD pattern
Underdiagnosis of girls
138
Environmental factors linked to ASD
Parental age, infection, prematurity
139
What is linked to an increased risk of autism in children?
Childhood Disorders
140
What has studies found about vaccinations and autism?
No connection
141
What drives autism at least partially?
Genetics
142
What do twin studies show about identical twins and autism?
Over 50% chance
143
Likelihood of autism in siblings?
Nearly one in five
144
Genetics of autism?
Very complicated
145
Role of genomic analyses?
Broadened potential genes
146
What contributes to the inheritance of most ASDs?
Many genes with small effects
147
Why are small effect genes hard to identify?
Genome-wide association studies
148
What type of variants are scientists currently examining?
Rare variants
149
What do rare mutations in single genes cause?
Intellectual disability and social dysfunction
150
Function of FMR1 gene?
Normal cognitive development
151
Role of PTEN gene?
Regulates cell division
152
Purpose of TSC1/TSC2 genes?
Control cell growth and size
153
% of people with fragile X syndrome affected?
50 to 60 percent
154
What percentage of people with tuberous sclerosis complex have ASD?
40 percent
155
What gene variant is associated with tumors in childhood?
NF-1
156
What percentage of NF-1 patients met criteria for autism?
10 percent
157
Which signaling pathway is influenced by ASD-related genes?
mTOR pathway
158
What is a potential treatment for autism according to the text?
mTOR pathway drugs
159
What is the role of PTEN mutations in mouse models?
Altered sociability, anxiety, repetitive behaviors
160
Which drugs can relieve behaviors linked to PTEN mutations?
Rapamycin, lovastatin
161
What is a challenge in autism genetics?
Too complicated for diagnosis
162
Are there biomarkers for autism?
No biomarkers available
163
How is autism currently diagnosed?
Behavioral analysis
164
How can autism be diagnosed more objectively?
Eye movements, neuroimaging
165
When can autism be reliably diagnosed?
Age 2
166
What age do most American children get diagnosed?
About 4½ years old
167
When do parents typically notice developmental issues?
Before first birthday
168
Why are earlier interventions hoped to be more effective?
More objective measures for diagnosis
169
What brain region is crucial for autism's effects?
Cerebral cortex
170
What are the unclear aspects of autism?
Molecular causes and characteristics
171
What alterations are observed in the brain of people with ASD?
Subtle changes in white and gray matter
172
What have long-term studies found about some children on the autism spectrum?
Abnormally large brain volumes
173
What developmental issue is noted in toddlers with autism?
Unusual development and network inefficiencies
174
When does atypical activity in the cortex occur for people with ASD?
From childhood into adulthood
175
How might information be processed across brain networks in ASD?
Not integrated in the usual way
176
Have any medications proven to reverse autism?
No
177
What kind of drugs provide symptomatic relief?
Anxiety medications
178
What hormone has shown mixed social benefits?
Oxytocin
179
What are the only proven treatments for autism?
Behavioral therapies
180
When are interventions most effective?
Early interventions
181
What percentage of American children are diagnosed with ADHD?
11 percent
182
What age range was surveyed for ADHD diagnosis?
Ages 4 to 17
183
What percentage of ADHD cases continue into adulthood?
30 percent
184
What are the main characteristics of ADHD?
Inattentiveness, hyperactivity, impulsivity
185
How do ADHD symptoms differ from typical behaviors in young children?
More extreme, last longer
186
What difficulties do children with ADHD face in social settings?
Struggle to form friendships
187
What can ADHD symptoms reflect in school?
Behavior instead of ability
188
What are some executive functions affected by ADHD?
Following directions, finishing tasks
189
What is a consequence of ADHD in young people?
Lower graduation rates
190
What is the risk associated with ADHD?
Higher risk of suicide
191
What does ADHD diagnosis require?
Comprehensive evaluation
192
What types of evaluations are included for ADHD diagnosis?
Clinical interview, ratings
193
What other conditions can cause symptoms similar to ADHD?
Depression, sleep issues
194
What must attention and behavioral problems do to warrant an ADHD diagnosis?
Interfere with normal functioning
195
In how many contexts must behavioral issues be present for an ADHD diagnosis?
More than one context
196
What are some environmental risk factors for ADHD?
Early adversity, lead exposure, low birthweight
197
Do people with ADHD show obvious brain alterations?
No obvious alterations
198
What neurotransmitter is involved in ADHD?
Dopamine
199
Is there a cure for ADHD?
No cure
200
What are the treatments for ADHD?
Drugs, behavioral interventions
201
What types of ADHD medications are there?
Stimulants and non-stimulants
202
Why are long-acting formulations of ADHD medications used?
To avoid school interruptions
203
What may be needed to determine the right ADHD medication and dosage?
Specialist support
204
What factor influences the adjustment of ADHD medication dosage?
Child's metabolism rate
205
Who usually diagnoses and treats ADHD?
Pediatricians
206
Effective treatments for ADHD include?
Support, exercise, meditation
207
What year was Down syndrome first described?
1866
208
Cause of Down syndrome?
Extra 21st chromosome
209
How many copies of the 21st chromosome in Down syndrome?
Three copies
210
What is mosaicism related to?
Trisomy not in every cell
211
How many people in the US have Down syndrome?
About 250,000
212
What is a major risk factor for Down syndrome?
Maternal age
213
How much more likely are mothers over 40 to have a child with Down syndrome?
8.5 times
214
What gene factor is associated with autism?
Dozens of genes
215
Facial features of Down syndrome
Flattened face, slanted eyes
216
Common physical traits in Down syndrome
Small hands/feet, short stature
217
Intellectual abilities in Down syndrome
Low to moderate
218
Down syndrome achievements
Some graduate, hold jobs
219
Common symptoms of Down syndrome?
Hearing loss, heart defects
220
When do individuals with Down syndrome typically develop Alzheimer's?
In their 40s or 50s
221
Which chromosome is linked to Alzheimer’s in Down syndrome?
Chromosome 21
222
What gene on Chromosome 21 is associated with Alzheimer's?
Amyloid precursor protein (APP)
223
What characterizes mosaic Down syndrome?
Milder symptoms, longer lifespan
224
What disorders might be related to energy metabolism?
Diabetes and Alzheimer’s
225
From where have scientists grown stem cells related to Down syndrome?
Fetuses with Down syndrome
226
What did researchers splice into stem cells with three copies of chromosome 21?
Gene to inactivate second X chromosome
227
What is dyslexia?
Difficulty with reading
228
What symptoms are associated with dyslexia?
Pronunciation trouble, poor spelling
229
When is dyslexia usually diagnosed?
Elementary school
230
What is dyslexia's nature over time?
Persists lifelong
231
What areas of the brain are involved in decoding printed letters?
Many areas
232
Which brain region is involved in word recognition?
Word-form area
233
Which cortex shows less activity in people with dyslexia?
Left occipitotemporal cortex
234
What do researchers believe about brain differences in dyslexia?
Present before reading difficulties
235
How do people with dyslexia compensate for brain activity?
Rely on the right side
236
What have genetic analyses revealed about dyslexia?
Susceptibility genes identified
237
What do animal models suggest about dyslexia genes?
Affect brain cell migration
238
What condition commonly runs in families?
Dyslexia
239
What percentage of twins share dyslexia if one is diagnosed?
55-70 percent
240
What factors contribute to dyslexia?
Genetics and environment
241
What does treatment for dyslexia involve?
Behavioral and educational intervention
242
What exercises are used in dyslexia treatment?
Breaking words into sounds
243
What is a key early indicator of dyslexia?
Rapid automatic naming
244
Which skills are often impaired in dyslexia?
Naming and sound recognition
245
What can predict later reading skills in children?
Naming and sound recognition skills
246
What is epilepsy?
Seizure disorder
247
How many seizures indicate epilepsy?
Two or more
248
What percentage of American children have epilepsy?
1 percent
249
What percentage of American adults have epilepsy?
1.8 percent
250
What does the term 'epilepsy' mean?
Seize or attack
251
What causes seizures?
Irregular brain cell activity
252
How long can seizures last?
Five or more minutes
253
What are some symptoms of seizures?
Staring spells, shaking
254
What method is used to distinguish types of epilepsy?
EEGs
255
What determines the cause of seizures?
Symptoms and EEG recordings
256
What are generalized seizures?
Affect both sides of the brain
257
Examples of generalized seizures?
Absence, tonic-clonic
258
What happens during absence seizures?
Rapid blinking, staring
259
What are focal seizures?
Localized to one area
260
What can a simple focal seizure cause?
Twitching, change in sensation
261
What can complex focal seizures cause?
Confusion and inability to answer
262
What are secondary generalized seizures?
Begin localized, spread generalized
263
What can occur in patients with severe epilepsy?
Multiple seizure types simultaneously
264
Why is epilepsy considered a spectrum?
Many possible causes
265
What are causes of epilepsy?
Premature birth, brain trauma, genetic factors
266
What attributes suggest genetics in epilepsy?
Head size, movement disorders, family history
267
What problems can seizures cause?
Intellectual or psychiatric problems
268
What can some seizures suppress?
Growth of dendrites
269
What are treatments for epilepsy?
Controlling seizures with medication or diet
270
What is often enough to control seizures?
Single medication
271
What diet can help reduce seizures in about half of epilepsy patients?
Ketogenic diet
272
What might doctors recommend for severe cases not relieved by medication?
Surgery
273
What is split-brain surgery?
Cutting the corpus callosum
274
What does epilepsy represent?
A spectrum of disorders
275
What is the purpose of split-brain surgery?
Control seizures
