Class Six Flashcards
1
Q
what is non associative learning
A
occurs when someone is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
2
Q
two types of non associative learning
A
habituation and sensitization
3
Q
what is associative learning
A
process of learning where an event/object/action is directly connected with another
4
Q
two categories of associative learning
A
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
5
Q
what is classical conditioning
A
2 stimuli paired together so that the response to one of the stimulus changes
e.g. Pavlov’s dogs
6
Q
acquisition
A
process of learning the conditioned response
7
Q
extinction
A
occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired
8
Q
spontaneous recovery
A
extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some time
9
Q
generalization
A
process where other stimulus can also elicit the conditioned response
10
Q
discrimination - classical conditioning
A
opposite of generalization
conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli
11
Q
taste-aversion
A
eating a specific food and becoming sick → keep avoiding that food
doesn’t need a long acquisition phase
12
Q
what is operant conditioning
A
use of negative and positive consequences to mold behaviour
13
Q
BF Skinner’s rat experiment
A
rat pushing the lever to get food
14
Q
what are reinforcements
A
anything that will increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated
can be pos or neg
15
Q
pos vs neg reinforcements
A
positive: adds a positive stimulus
negative: takes away a negative stimulus
16
Q
brain structures involved in neg/pos conditioning
A
negative: amygdala
positive: hippocampus
17
Q
primary vs secondary reinforcers
A
primary: integral to survival (food, avoiding pain etc.)
secondary: neutral stimuli paired with primary stimuli
18
Q
continuous vs intermittent reinforcement schedule
A
continuous: fast acquisition but also fast extinction
intermittent: slower acquisition and slower extinction
19
Q
fixed ratio schedule
A
set number of instances = reinforcement
high rate of response
20
Q
variable ratio schedule
A
providing rein foment after unpredictable number off occurrences
e.g. gambling
high response rate
21
Q
fixed interval schele
A
providing reinforcement after a set interval of time
behaviour increases as the reinforcement interval comes to an end
22
Q
variable interval schedule
A
providing reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time
slow, steady behaviour
23
Q
which schedule has the slowest rate of extinction
A
variable ratio
24
Q
positive vs negative punishment
A
positive: pairing an undesirable stimulus with a behaviour
negative: removal of a desirable stimulus
25
what has a longer effect - reinforcement or punishment?
reinforcement
26
learning and biological relevance
learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant
27
consolidation
process in which short term memory is converted into long term memory
28
long term potentiation
increase in synaptic strength between 2 neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
29
what is observational learning
learning through watching + imitation
30
when do mirror neurons fire
when performing a task or when observing someone else perform the task
31
encoding
process of transferring sensory information into our memory system
32
primacy and recency effect
being able to remember the first and last things in a list
first thing: had more time to be encoded
last thing: still in the phonological loop, more available
33
dual coding hypothesis
says it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
34
self-reference effect
easier to remember things that are personally relevant
35
sensory memory
initial recording of sensory information in the memory system → quickly decays
36
two types of sensory memory
iconic memory and echoic memory
37
iconic memory
brief photographic memory for visual info → decays very, very fast
38
eidetic memory
ability found in children
remembering an image in vivid detail for a couple minutes
39
echoic memory
memory for sound → lasts for 3-4 seconds
40
short term memory
limited in duration and capacity
lasts for 20 seconds
41
short term memory is correlated with which brain structure
hippocampus
42
working memory is correlated with which brain structure
prefrontal cortex
43
implicit/procedural memory
knowledge of how to do something
44
explicit/declarative memory
being able to voice what is known
45
semantic memory
memory for factual information
46
episodic memory
autographical memory for personal information
47
which deteriorates first - episodic or semantic
semantic
48
brain structures involved in memory
hippocampus
cerebellum
amygdala
49
retrieval
process of finding information stored in memory
50
recall
ability to retrieve information
51
free vs cued recall
free: retrieval out of thin air
cued: retrieval when provided with a cue
52
what influences decline in memory
activity - physical and mental
53
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
54
hippocampus - memory
encodes new explicit memories
55
cerebellum - memory
encodes implicit memories
56
amygdala - memory
ties emotion to memories
57
anterograde amnesis
inability to encode new memories
58
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall preciously encoded information
59
theory of why Alzheimers occurs
inability to manufacture enough ACh → neuronal death in hippocampus
60
proactive interference
happens when info previously learned interferes with ability to recall info learned after
61
retroactive interference
newly learned info interferes with the recall of info learned previously
62
positive transfer - memory
old info facilitates the learning of new info
63
misinformation effect
tendency to misremember
64
moro (startle) reflex
in response to a loud noise, infant will startle
65
rooting reflex
touching a baby's cheeks will have them opening their mouth looking for a nipple
66
sucking reflex
if something touches the roof of a baby's mouth, it will suck
67
Babinski reflex
sole of foot gets touched = toes fan out
68
tonic neck reflex
when head is turned one side, the baby stretches arm on the same side and the opposite side bends up at the elbow
69
palmar reflex
stroking baby's palm and hand will grasp
70
walking/stepping reflex
if something touches sole of feet, baby will attempt to walk
71
reflexive movements
primitive, involuntary → prime the neuromuscular system for more movement later on
72
rudimentary movements
first voluntary movements performed by a child
e.g. sitting, crawling
dictated by genetics
73
fundamental movements
child is learning how manipulate their body
highly influenced by environment
74
specialized movement
children learn to combine fundamental movement and apply them to specific tasks
75
infantile amnesia
not being able to remember anything before age 3.5
76
authoritarian parenting
controlling children with strict rules
give punishments and no reasoning
children grow up to be aggressive/shy with low self esteem
77
permissive parents
allow their children to be in charge, no rules
children grow up to lack self-discipline and low social skills
78
authoritative parents
listening to children and encouraging independence
disciplined fair and consistently
produces children that are happy and have good emotional control
79
3 major changes of brain during adolescence
cell proliferation
synaptic pruning
myelination
80
when does displacement occur
in short term memory
81
retroactive interference
new info interfering with the ability to recall old info
82
proactive interference
old info interfering with the ability to recall new info
83
what is the prefrontal cortex involved with
reflection, planning & emotional regulation
ability to understand the perspectives of others
84
structural vs functional imaging
structural - picture of brain, spacing etc.
functional - shows which part of the brain is active
85
computerized tomography (CT)
shows anatomical parts of the brain
86
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
use of strong magnets
can be structural or functional
87
CTs vs MRIs
CTs are faster + less expensive
MRIs give more details about soft tissues & no x rays (radiation)
88
CTs and MRIs are examples of..
structural imaging techniques
89
electroencephalography (EEG)
use of electrodes to measure voltage of brain neutrons
give data about brain waves
90
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
mapping brain activity by using magnetic fields
requires expensive bulky machinery
91
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
use of a computer to combine MRIs to show how brain activity changes over time
can show changes in oxygen levels
very precise
92
positron emission tomography (PET)
gives an image of functional metabolic processes over time
93
what does the CNS include
brain + spinal cord
94
three divisions of the brain
hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain
95
functions of CSF
shock absorption
exchange of nutrients + waste
96
what protects the spinal cord
CSF & vertebral column
97
what is the hindbrain composed of
medulla, pons & the cerebellum
98
function of the medulla
area of brain that connects to spinal cord
vital autonomic functions - BP, vomiting & breathing
99
function of the pons
plays a role in balance
coordinates movement
100
function of the cerebellum
helps coordinate complex movements
receives info from the vestibular apparatus
101
what 2 structures receive info from the vestibular apparatus
pons and cerebellum
102
what is the reticular activating system responsible for
arousal or wakefulness
103
what does the forebrain include
the diencephalon and telencephalon
104
what does the diencephalon include
thalamus and hypothalamus
105
function of the thalamus
contains relay & processing centers for sensory info
106
function of the hypothalamus
major role in hormone production + release
controls emotions + autonomic functions
107
what does the left hemisphere control
motor functions for right side of the body
108
what does the right hemisphere control
motor functions for the left side of the body
109
for most people, which hemisphere is dominant
left
110
left vs right hemispheres - what are they responsible for
left - speech
right - visual spatial reasoning & music
111
what are the cerebral hemispheres connected by
corpus callosum
112
4 lobes of the brain
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
113
function of the frontal lobes
voluntary moment, reasoning skills
114
function of the parietal lobes
general sensations + taste
receives input from mechanoreceptors & proprioceptors
115
function of the temporal lobes
auditory & olfactory sensations
short term memory, emotion, language comp
116
function of the occipital lobes
visual sensation
117
Broca's area
speech production
118
Wernicke's area
language comp
119
function of the basal nuclei
voluntary motor control
procedural learning → habits
prevent excess movement
120
function of the limbic system
emotion & memory
121
two types of neurotransmitters
excitatory and inhibitory
122
excitatory vs inhibitory neurotransmitters
excitatory - increase postsynaptic neuron firing
inhibitory - decrease firing
123
functions of dopamine
reward, mood, pleasure, focus + attention
not enough → depression
124
functions of serotonin
mood, digestion, memory & sexual desire
not enough → aggression & compulsive behaviour
125
functions of melatonin
sleepiness
not enough → insomnia
126
functions of GABA
primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
not enough → anxiety, depression, ADHD
127
functions of ACh
excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic activity
not enough → dysfunction of GI tract & paralysis
128
functions of epinephrine & norepinephrine
sympathetic nervous system activation
not enough → fatigue, loss of focus
129
functions of glutamate
primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, memory
not enough → fatigue
130
where do serotonin pathways project from
raphe nucleus
131
3 dopaminergic pathways
mesolimbic circuit: natural pathway for reward/pleasure
nigrostriatal circuit: movement + coordination
mesocortical circuity: higher corital functions
132
functions of cortisol
stress, sympathetic NS response
133
functions of oxytocin
trust, sexual reproduction, mother-infant bonding
134
functions of endorphins
pleasure, arousal & pain suppression
135
functions of leptin
regulate energy, inhibit hunger
136
damage to prefrontal cortex leads to..
inappropriateness, impulsivity
137
primary center for reward in brain
nucelus accumbens (releases dopamine)
138
what releases endorphins
lateral hypothalamus
139
neural plasticity
malleability of the brains pathways and synapses based on behaviour and environment etc.
140
problems with mirror neurons might explain..
autism → problem with empathy
141
CRH and ACTH pathway
hypothalamus releases CRH
CRH gets the pituitary gland to release ACTH
ACTH gets the adrenal glands to release cortisol
142
what does cortisol do
hormone that gets the body to use fat instead of glucose as the energy source
helps keep bloodsugar high during stressful situations (so brain can use the glucose)
143
what may be responsible for the negative signs of schizophrenia
hypoactivation of the frontal lobes
