Conservatism Flashcards
(186 cards)
1
Q
What are two core values of conservatism strongly linked to traditional and One Nation Conservatism?
A
Pragmatism and tradition
2
Q
Which writers are associated with pragmatism and tradition in conservatism?
A
Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott
3
Q
What does pragmatism reject in favour of practical experience?
A
Ideology and theory
4
Q
What does a pragmatic political approach consider?
A
What is acceptable to and in the best interests of the people - and what ensures social stability and cohesion
5
Q
According to Edmund Burke - what is the school of mankind?
A
Example
Example is the school of mankind, and they will learn at no other.
6
Q
According to Michael Oakeshott - what does it mean to be a Conservative?
A
To prefer the tried to the untried
7
Q
What does tradition refer to?
A
The institutions - customs and beliefs of a society that has developed over time and are passed on from generation to generation
8
Q
According to G.K. Chesterton - what does tradition mean?
A
Giving votes to our ancestors; the democracy of the dead
9
Q
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding human nature?
A
Humans lack the intellectual ability to fully understand the complex realities of the world - making abstract theories potentially destabilising
10
Q
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding society?
A
Abstract ideas like equality and rights can lead to radical change and worse conditions
11
Q
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding the state?
A
A cautious and gradual approach will introduce necessary reform without endangering social cohesion
12
Q
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding the economy (One Nation conservatism)?
A
A ‘middle way’ economic policy combining market competition with government regulation
13
Q
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding human nature?
A
Tradition provides a social framework for security-seeking humans to understand society
14
Q
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding society?
A
Long-established institutions give communities a strong sense of identity and encourage social cohesion
15
Q
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding the state?
A
Tradition represents accumulated wisdom; proven institutions should be preserved
16
Q
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding the economy?
A
The capitalist market system should be maintained as long as it doesn’t undermine conservative values
17
Q
According to traditional conservatives like Burke - how does cautious pragmatism help society?
A
It enables adaptation to changing circumstances through moderate changes - safeguarding essential features like property and order
18
Q
What type of economic policy do One Nation conservatives adopt?
A
A pragmatic ‘middle way’ that combines market competition with government regulation to promote growth and social stability
19
Q
A
20
Q
How do conservatives like Oakeshott view humans?
A
As flawed - unchanging - and incapable of achieving perfection
21
Q
Why does human imperfection need to be reined in according to conservatives?
A
Because of people’s capacity for evil
22
Q
According to conservatives - why can humans only exist in an organic state or society?
A
Because they are dependent and insecure
23
Q
What are the three aspects of human imperfection according to conservatism?
A
Psychological - moral - and intellectual
24
Q
How do conservatives view humans psychologically?
A
As limited and dependent beings who desire familiarity - safety - and security - thus needing social order over liberty
25
How do conservatives view humans morally?
As naturally selfish beings - suggesting antisocial behavior stems from human nature - requiring a tough law-and-order system
26
How do conservatives view humans intellectually?
As lacking the intellect to understand a complex world - thus rejecting abstract theories in favor of pragmatism - history - and tradition
27
Due to the weakness of human nature - what do conservatives argue about the state's role in law and order and foreign policy?
The state must impose tough law-and-order policies and pursue foreign policies based on national security - not liberal international cooperation
28
Due to the weakness of human nature - what do conservatives argue about the basis of society?
Society must be based on authority - hierarchy - and paternalism to provide stability and security
29
Due to the weakness of human nature - what do conservatives argue about the economy?
Capitalism is a more powerful motivator than altruism because humans are self-interested
30
What is the conservative view of the organic state or society based on?
The view that humans are dependent and security-seeking
31
According to the organic view - how does society function?
Like a living organism with balanced parts working in harmony to maintain health and social cohesion - avoiding atomism
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What is authority in the context of the organic state?
Top-down authority that shapes relations between social groups and permeates institutions - providing direction - security - and promoting social cohesion
33
What is paternalism in the context of the organic state?
The idea that the most advantaged have the greatest social responsibilities - justifying inequality as a means to protect the well-being of others
34
What is the role of traditional institutions in the organic state?
They preserve the 'health' of society and meet the human need for security - and should not be radically changed
35
What is hierarchy in the context of the organic state?
A system based on fixed ranks and inequalities - justified by varying human intellect and the necessity of different social roles
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What are paternalism and libertarianism in relation to conservative core ideas?
Opposing ideas
38
Which Conservative government is a good example of paternalistic conservatism?
Harold Macmillan's government (1957–1963)
39
Which political figures' policies were informed by libertarianism?
Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan
40
What is paternalism in traditional conservative belief?
Government should be led and decisions made by those best equipped through birth - inheritance - and upbringing
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What conservative views is paternalism strongly linked to?
Hierarchy - order - and the organic society
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How is paternalism described in short?
Benign power exerted from above by the state governing in the interest of the population
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What did One Nation conservatism do to the notion of paternalism?
Softened it
44
What is libertarianism in conservative thinking influenced by?
Adam Smith's arguments for economic liberalism
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What does libertarianism advocate?
Individual liberty and maximum economic freedom
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What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding human nature (traditional conservatives)?
The social elite's innate abilities give them authority and an obligation to care for the less fortunate
47
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding human nature (modern One Nation conservatives)?
Successful individuals have a social responsibility to look after those unable to care for themselves due to unevenly distributed ability
48
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding the economy (One Nation conservatism)?
Government regulation and social welfare are necessary to improve conditions for the poorest
49
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding society?
The privileged have a social responsibility to care for the less fortunate - preserving their position and social order
50
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding the state (since 1945)?
The modern state is the best agency to deliver social welfare and economic regulation for all
51
What are the two forms of state-directed paternalism?
Soft (with consent) and hard (imposed regardless of consent)
52
What does libertarianism reject?
Paternalism and minimal government/state regulation
53
What is libertarianism now more commonly known as?
The liberal new right or neo-liberalism
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Who are key libertarian thinkers?
Friedrich von Hayek - Ayn Rand - and Robert Nozick
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What is an argument in favour of libertarianism regarding the economy?
The free market efficiently supplies goods and services based on demand and determines the 'natural' level of unemployment
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According to libertarianism - what is the biggest threat to the market economy?
Inflation - which inhibits economic and business activity
57
According to libertarianism - how should inflation be curbed?
By cutting government spending to control the money supply
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What does libertarianism argue about state involvement in the mixed economy - welfare - and public ownership?
They are too expensive and inefficient and should be rejected
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What type of economic policies does libertarianism advocate?
'Supply side' policies to boost production by removing obstacles like regulation and high taxation
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How does libertarianism view taxation?
As a form of legalised 'state robbery' that undermines property rights by transferring income without consent
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What is an argument in favour of libertarianism regarding human nature?
Humans are naturally competitive - autonomous - individualistic - self-interested - and rational
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Why does libertarianism reject social welfare provision on moral grounds?
Because it creates a 'dependency culture' undermining personal responsibility - freedom - and initiative
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When did traditional conservatism emerge and what was it a response to?
The late 18th century - as a critical response to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment
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Which book by Edmund Burke is the classic work in favour of traditional conservatism?
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
66
How does traditional conservatism view society?
As an organic or 'living' body with complex interconnections
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What role do traditional institutions play in traditional conservatism?
They represent accumulated experience and wisdom - binding society through duty - loyalty - and affection
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What is the traditional conservative view on creating a perfect society using abstract theories?
It will fail because it's not based on past human experience and pragmatism
69
Who did Burke maintain should govern?
The 'true natural aristocracy'
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What qualities did Burke attribute to the 'natural aristocracy'?
Ability - experience - and inclination to lead wisely in the interest of the whole society
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From where did Burke think this governing elite would be largely drawn?
The hereditary aristocracy
72
What were the traditional conservative arguments in defence of aristocratic rule?
The upper class was raised and educated to govern and - as large property holders - had a stake in society
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What is hierarchy in the context of traditional conservatism?
An organic society must be organized as a hierarchy because people are not equal in ability - and different jobs have different rewards based on contribution
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How does traditional conservatism view change or reform?
It must be gradual and based on past experience to preserve the balance of society; sudden change is harmful
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What principles was aristocratic rule based on according to traditional conservatives?
Paternalism and noblesse oblige - meaning those in authority had a duty to make decisions for society
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Who did traditional conservatives in the late 18th and early 19th centuries consider the 'natural' leaders of society?
The aristocracy
77
What was the Enlightenment?
An 18th-century European intellectual movement stressing human reason and critical examination of existing ideas and traditions
78
How did traditional conservatives view much of Enlightenment thinking?
They rejected it as encouraging rapid - indiscriminate - and destabilising change
79
What was the focus of Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France?
It attacked the idea that government could be based on abstract principles like liberty and equality
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What did Burke believe the French Revolution illustrated?
The dangers of sudden and far-reaching change
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Why did Burke think the removal of the monarchy and aristocratic privilege undermined French society?
It challenged established notions of authority - tradition - hierarchy - and property
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What was Burke's fear regarding France's new leaders?
That they would lack the experience - restraint - and understanding to govern - leading to chaos
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When did One Nation conservatism emerge and what was it a response to?
The 19th century - in response to laissez-faire capitalism and industrialisation
85
What is One Nation conservatism in relation to traditional conservatism?
An updated version
86
Who is generally regarded as the founder of One Nation conservatism?
Benjamin Disraeli
87
What were the two key reasons for the emergence of One Nation conservatism?
Fears that self-interested individualism was undermining the organic society - and concerns that industrialisation was creating a divided society ('two nations') leading to instability
88
How did One Nation conservatism modify the idea of paternalism?
It softened it - viewing it as the responsibility of the well-off to care for the less fortunate
89
What did Disraeli want to achieve with One Nation conservatism?
To reconcile the 'two nations' by renewing conservatism's commitment to reform and social obligation
90
What were Disraeli's motives for One Nation conservatism?
Both pragmatic (reducing social discontent - preserving the upper class's position - gaining working-class support) and principled (a moral duty to help the poor)
91
What was Disraeli determined to protect and why?
Traditional British institutions (monarchy - Church of England) because they provided stability and national loyalty
92
What was Disraeli's view on the British Empire?
It strengthened national pride and Britain's global influence - appealing to all classes
93
What type of reforms did Disraeli introduce for the working class?
Social reforms like housing - food safety - and voting rights - aiming to create an alliance between the ruling class and workers
94
What was the high point of One Nation conservatism?
The Conservative government of 1951–1964
95
What economic approach did the 1951–1964 One Nation government use?
Keynesian economics to maintain high employment - accepting a mixed economy and the welfare state
96
How did the One Nation government view reforms for the poorest?
As a way to reduce social discontent and preserve the position of the upper classes
97
What was the One Nation view on the responsibility of the privileged towards the poor?
They had a moral and paternalistic duty to help - often understood as noblesse oblige
98
Who was Harold Macmillan and what is his significance to One Nation conservatism?
Conservative prime minister (1957–1963) who described One Nation as a 'middle way'
99
What did Macmillan's 'middle way' aim to balance?
Unrestrained liberalism (individualism and free market) and socialist collectivism (extensive state control)
100
Who was R.A. Butler and what did he say about the aim of government policy at the time?
A 1950s–1960s One Nation minister who said policy aimed to bring Disraeli's 'two nations' into a single social entity
101
What was the title of Macmillan's classic study proposing a 'halfway house' between capitalism and socialism?
The Middle Way (1938)
102
What did Macmillan's 'halfway house' include?
Public ownership of key industries - government direction of investment - and state-funded welfare
103
What did Macmillan argue a managed economy and 'orderly capitalism' would do?
Preserve the cohesion of the 'one nation' and prevent social unrest
104
For how long did One Nation conservatism remain the dominant strand in conservative thinking?
From the 1950s to the 1970s
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106
When did the New Right emerge and what was it a rival to?
The 1970s - as the main rival to One Nation conservatism
107
What two distinct strands brought together the New Right?
Neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism
108
Why did New Right thinking gain momentum in the 1970s?
Interventionist government policies failed to combat stagflation
109
Which political figures are popularly linked with the New Right in the 1980s?
Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan
110
What terms were frequently used to refer to the New Right perspective of the 1980s?
Reaganism or Thatcherism
111
What is neo-liberalism in the context of the New Right?
An updated form of classical liberalism calling for a free market - minimal state - and individual freedom/responsibility
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What is neo-conservatism in the context of the New Right?
A modernised version of traditional conservative social thinking emphasizing social order - traditional values - and public morality
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What are some argued features of the New Right?
Radical - traditional - and reactionary elements
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What does the 'radical' aspect of the New Right oppose?
Economic and social intervention by the government and adopts anti-permissiveness on social attitudes
115
What traditional views do neo-conservatives endorse?
Family values - respect for authority - and the benefits of hard work
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What does the 'reactionary' aspect of the New Right often seem to regard as a 'golden age'?
The 19th century - for economic freedom and individual moral responsibility
117
What does a reactionary person or attitude favour?
A return to an earlier period with positive features currently lacking
118
What was Charles Murray's main argument in his study 'Losing Ground'?
That state welfare provision had created a dependency culture - sapping individual responsibility
119
According to Murray - what did the welfare state's legal neutrality and liberal nature encourage?
Moral relativism and a permissive outlook that undermined the traditional nuclear family
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Which economists promoted neo-liberalism in the 1970s?
Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek
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Against what did neo-conservatism emerge in the 1970s?
The 'liberal' 1960s in the West
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What is a key principle of neo-liberalism regarding the economy?
The free market is the most effective mechanism for meeting demand - using resources - and producing prosperity
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Against what does neo-liberalism argue the free market must be protected?
Inflation - industrial/business monopolies - and government intervention
125
What does neo-liberalism see as the government's vital economic role?
To tackle inflation
126
Which policy did Thatcher and Reagan adopt to reduce inflation?
Friedman's monetarist policy - controlling the money supply through public spending cuts
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What is this neo-liberal approach to economics generally known as?
'Supply side' economics
128
What does neo-liberalism argue about state planning - nationalisation - and high taxation?
They lead to economic inefficiency and lack of incentive
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According to neo-liberalism - why does state welfare provision expand regardless of demand?
Due to the vested interests of professionals and political parties
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What are the results of expanding state welfare provision according to neo-liberalism?
Rising taxation - inflation - and increasingly inefficient services
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What is atomistic individualism in neo-liberalism?
The belief that individuals are rational - self-interested - and self-sufficient
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How does neo-liberalism believe individual freedom can be safeguarded?
By opposing collectivism and 'rolling back' the state
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What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding social order?
The 'liberal' 1960s undermined social order - which can only be safeguarded by strong leadership and re-establishing traditional institutions
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What are some ways neo-conservatism believes social order can be safeguarded?
Strong political leadership - renewed government authority - re-introducing discipline and hierarchy
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What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding traditional values?
They must be upheld to strengthen society and restore social discipline - requiring a 'strong state'
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What did Thatcher and Reagan do regarding law and order based on neo-conservative principles?
Took a tough stance - believing it would deter illegal acts and challenge traditional values
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What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding public morality?
The permissive culture of the 1960s undermined it by allowing individual moral choices
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According to neo-conservatism - what are two problems with allowing individual moral choices?
Individuals may adopt 'immoral' codes - and it undermines common moral standards and social cohesion
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What example does the text give of how extensive welfare provision undermines atomistic individualism (a neo-liberal principle)?
It creates a dependency culture
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Which figures and movements illustrate the neo-conservative concern with public morality?
Thatcher ('Victorian values') and the Moral Majority in the USA
141
What was the main argument of Friedrich von Hayek's 'The Road to Serfdom'?
That state interventionism and collectivism erode individual liberty and create a new form of serfdom
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Who did Hayek address his study to?
'The socialists of all parties'
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What did Hayek argue free individuals would become dependent on through state intervention?
The state (via welfare provision)
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For whom did Hayek's study become a key text?
Supporters of the free market and opponents of Keynesianism and state welfare - including Keith Joseph and Margaret Thatcher
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Who are regarded as two of the key conservative thinkers mentioned?
Thomas Hobbes and Edmund Burke
147
What are the two important conservative ideas Hobbes developed in Leviathan?
Order and human nature
148
According to Hobbes - what should an ordered society balance?
The human need to lead a free life
149
How does Hobbes describe human nature?
As needy - vulnerable - and easily led astray in understanding the world
150
According to Hobbes - what is the 'state of nature'?
A condition where humans are free from authority - leading to war due to a 'restless desire for power'
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Why would rational people sacrifice their freedom in the state of nature according to Hobbes?
For security through the establishment of political authority
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How is government established according to Hobbes?
By the joint consent of the people - authorising those in power to preserve order and peace
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How do humans demonstrate needy and vulnerable characteristics according to Hobbes?
By competing violently for necessities - fighting out of fear for safety - and seeking reputation
154
What does Hobbes say about human capacity to reason?
It is fragile and easily distorted by self-interest
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What question did Hobbes pose about individual freedom and the law?
How can a state be governed if every individual can choose to obey the law based on their private opinion?
156
What are the two key conservative ideas Burke developed in Reflections on the Revolution in France?
Change to conserve and respect for tradition and empiricism
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According to Burke - how should change be undertaken?
With caution and mindful of the delicate balance in an organic society
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Why should tradition and empiricism be respected according to Burke?
Because they represent practices passed down through generations
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How does Burke describe the state in relation to change?
Like a living organism that needs gentle 'pruning' or 'grafting' to preserve stability
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What should reform be based on according to Burke?
Empiricism and tradition - rather than new abstract principles
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What does Burke say revolutionary change threatens to do?
Cut off the 'roots' of the organic society - leading to social and political breakdown
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What do tradition and empiricism represent according to Burke?
The accumulated and 'tested' wisdom of the past in society's institutions and customs
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How does respect for tradition and empiricism promote social order according to Burke?
By encouraging continuity - providing reference points for change - and fostering social cohesion and security
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According to Burke - how should one approach altering long-standing societal structures?
With infinite caution - especially without approved models of utility
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Which other conservative thinkers are mentioned?
Oakeshott - Rand - and Nozick
167
What two concepts did Oakeshott stress in his works?
Human imperfection and pragmatism
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According to Oakeshott - what is society like?
Unpredictable
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According to Oakeshott - what are humans like?
Imperfect and lacking the mental faculties to understand the modern world
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According to Oakeshott - what is conservatism about?
Being pragmatic
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According to Oakeshott - what is a 'rationalist' political leader inclined to do?
Make decisions based on their own reason rather than practical experience
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What dangerous idea does this encourage according to Oakeshott?
That the leader fully understands society and how to change it
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According to Oakeshott - what should guide political thinking and action?
Pragmatism and practical experience
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What are the aims of pragmatic political action according to Oakeshott?
To ensure public acceptance - maintain social stability - and respond flexibly to circumstances
175
Which political system does Oakeshott see as a good example of pragmatic thinking?
The British parliamentary system
176
What did Ayn Rand's novels advocate?
Objectivism and freedom
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What is objectivism according to Rand?
Rational self-interest is a virtue; pursuing it is morally right ('the virtue of selfishness')
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What kind of economy did Rand support?
A completely unregulated - laissez-faire economy
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According to Rand - what is this type of economy compatible with?
The free expression of human rationality
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What concept did Robert Nozick promote in Anarchy - State and Utopia?
Libertarianism
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What rights do individuals have according to Nozick's libertarianism?
Rights to their lives - liberty - and the rewards of their labour
182
What principle underlies Nozick's view of individual rights?
Individuals cannot be treated as things or used against their will
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What is self-ownership according to Nozick?
Individuals own their own bodies - talents - abilities - and labour
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What threatens self-ownership according to Nozick?
Enforced taxation for welfare and state regulation over the individual
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Why are taxes for state welfare immoral according to Nozick?
Because they treat individuals as a means rather than an end
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What kind of state does Nozick believe is justified?
Only a minimal state
