Liberalism Flashcards
(218 cards)
1
Q
From what intellectual movement is liberalism seen to originate?
A
The Enlightenment
2
Q
What are the two key core values of liberalism?
A
Individualism and freedom or liberty
3
Q
What do liberals stress the importance of over social groups?
A
The individual
4
Q
What do liberals believe individuals possess?
A
- Self-awareness
- capabilities
- personality
- free will to decide their destiny
5
Q
What does freedom or liberty imply for liberals?
A
The ability and right of an individual to make decisions in their own interests
6
Q
Is freedom absolute for liberals?
A
No - it must be exercised under the law
Cannot use your freedom to impeech someone elses
7
Q
What did early liberals argue about human nature and freedom?
A
The human need for individual freedom overrides authoritarian governments’ claims
8
Q
What do liberals past and present maintain about freedom and the state?
A
Freedom is not absolute and must be exercised under the laws of the state
9
Q
What did Jeremy Bentham argue about individual decision-making?
A
Individuals can make decisions based on rational self-interest - driven by pleasure and avoiding pain
10
Q
According to Bentham - when should the government intervene in individual actions?
A
Only if they undermine others’ ability to make choices
11
Q
What principle did Bentham’s ideas establish for society?
A
‘The greatest happiness for the greatest number’
12
Q
What potential drawback did Bentham’s principle have?
A
It could disregard minority interests in favour of the majority
13
Q
What concept did John Stuart Mill advocate regarding freedom?
A
Negative freedom – individuals should only face external restraints when their actions harm others
14
Q
What do liberals believe about the worth of individuals?
A
All individuals are unique and have equal worth
15
Q
How should individuals be treated according to liberals?
A
As having intrinsic value - not as instruments for a goal
16
Q
What is egoistical individualism as emphasised by classical liberals?
A
The idea that people are basically self-seeking and self-reliant
17
Q
How did later liberals like T.H. Green view Mill’s concept of liberty?
A
As too limited because it reduced society to independent individuals
18
Q
How did T.H. Green view society?
A
As organic - where people pursue both the common good and individual interests
19
Q
What concept did T.H. Green’s ideas lead to?
A
Positive freedom – individuals should control their destiny - develop talents - and reach self-fulfilment
20
Q
What did positive freedom necessitate according to later liberals?
A
Limited state intervention to facilitate it
21
Q
How is individualism linked to tolerance for liberals?
A
Individualism implies accepting values and beliefs one disagrees with
22
Q
What do liberals believe about tolerance?
A
It is a natural right all humans should have
23
Q
What is developmental individualism?
A
A modern liberal idea linking individual freedom with a society where everyone can experience personal growth and achieve potential
24
Q
How has developmental individualism been used to justify state intervention?
A
To justify limited intervention to help the disadvantaged
25
What have liberals argued for toleration of within society?
A growing range of views and practices - including different religious beliefs - ethnic cultures - and alternative lifestyles
26
27
How do liberals view the state?
As essential but problematic - a 'necessary evil'
28
What do liberals seek to do with the state's power and scope?
Limit it
29
What does rationalism maintain?
Humans are (or should be) guided by reason over emotion - instinct - or prejudice
30
What was rationalism central to?
Enlightenment thinking
31
What did Enlightenment thinking reject?
Unquestioning acceptance of traditional authority and religion
32
Why do liberals see the state as necessary?
To prevent social disorder and exploitation
33
Why is state power viewed with suspicion by liberals?
Because self-seeking human nature may lead to abuse of power
34
What do liberals oppose regarding state power?
The concentration of it
35
Why do liberals oppose concentrated state power?
Because it encourages self-interest at the expense of others
36
What do liberals advocate as a result of their view on state power?
Limited government
37
What principles should limited government be based on according to liberals?
Constitutionalism - separation of powers - checks and balances - and a bill of rights
38
What mechanisms can be used to prevent the concentration of state power according to liberals?
Devolution and federalism
39
How do liberal attitudes to the state influence their views on the economy?
They argue for a limited role for the state
40
What economic system did 18th- and 19th-century liberals embrace?
Laissez-faire capitalism
41
What is the liberal view on economic competition?
It benefits everyone as individuals strive for profit
42
What level of intervention do liberals believe government should have in the economy?
Minimum intervention
43
Why do liberals believe humans need to be free to make their own decisions?
Without being directed by external agencies like the state or Church
44
What benefit do liberals see in individuals taking responsibility for themselves?
It fosters personal growth over reliance on external guidance
45
How does rationalism foster a progressive society according to liberals?
Individual personal development promotes wider social advancement
46
How should disputes and conflicts be resolved according to liberals?
Through reasoned discussion and debate
47
What did John Stuart Mill say about restricting government interference?
The most cogent reason is the great evil of unnecessarily adding to its power
48
What did Adam Smith argue in The Wealth of Nations?
Human self-interest is a key driving force behind economic growth
49
How did Bertrand Russell view religion?
As something left over from the infancy of intelligence that will fade with reason and science
50
51
What does liberalism maintain about the value of individuals?
They are of equal value and should be treated impartially and fairly
52
What is the general stance of liberals towards democracy?
They generally support it - with some reservations
53
What do liberals argue about the essential nature of humans?
They share the same essential nature and are therefore equal
54
Over what aspect of equality are liberals divided?
What equality means in practice
55
What do modern liberals emphasize regarding the distribution of wealth?
Justice – a morally justifiable distribution that limits inequality to some extent
56
What is liberal democracy based on according to most liberals?
Free elections - a neutral state with limited powers - and recognition of civil liberties and toleration
57
What is equality of opportunity according to liberals?
Everyone should have the same chance to rise or fall; differing outcomes are acceptable
58
What is the modern liberal view on state intervention regarding equality?
Some intervention is acceptable to enable individuals to fulfill potential and be treated fairly
59
Is complete equality of outcome achievable or desirable according to modern liberals?
Neither achievable nor desirable
60
What is formal equality according to liberals?
People should have the same legal and political rights - based on equality before the law and equal voting rights
61
What is foundational equality according to liberals?
All people are born equal and possess inalienable human rights
62
What is the liberal view on social inequality?
Some is acceptable as different talents require different rewards
63
Why do liberals believe some social inequality benefits society?
It incentivizes individuals to strive - creating a meritocracy
64
What argument did 19th-century liberals like Robert Lowe make against universal suffrage?
Poorly educated individuals were incapable of voting in an informed way
65
Why do liberals believe government lacks legitimacy without democracy?
Without the consent of the people
66
What concept should operate between the people and their rulers in a democracy according to liberals?
A social contract where consent is freely given and renewed
67
How does democracy benefit citizens according to liberals?
They can hold the government to account
68
How does democracy enhance individuals according to liberals?
It promotes popular participation and personal growth
69
What was a concern some liberals had about democracy being collectivist?
It could lead to an expanded state - higher taxation - and stifled individual initiative
70
What is the 'tyranny of the majority' concern some liberals have about democracy?
It may undermine minority rights or individual freedoms and impose conformity
71
What is the stance of most modern liberals on democracy?
They endorse it but insist it is subject to constitutional constraints and protects rights
72
73
What are the two key strands of liberal ideology?
Classical and modern liberalism
74
What type of freedom do classical liberals advocate?
Negative freedom
75
To what features of classical liberalism is negative freedom linked?
Egoistical individualism and limiting state power
76
Why do classical liberals believe limiting state power maximises freedom?
Individuals take greater responsibility for their lives
77
What negative impact does reliance on the state have according to classical liberals?
It undermines self-respect and entrepreneurial drive
78
Why do modern liberals reject negative freedom on its own?
Disadvantaged individuals need help to overcome obstacles
79
What concept of freedom do modern liberals endorse?
Positive freedom
80
How do modern liberals view freedom?
As self-realisation
81
What does positive freedom support according to modern liberals?
Limited state intervention in society and the economy
82
What is the aim of state intervention in positive freedom?
To release individuals from social deprivation and give them opportunities
83
What concept does positive freedom reinforce?
Developmental individualism
84
When did classical liberalism emerge and what was it linked to?
The 18th century - linked to the emergence of industrial capitalism
85
What type of freedom and state do classical liberals maintain there should be?
Negative freedom and a minimal or 'night watchman' state
86
What essential obligation does the state have according to classical liberals?
To protect property
87
How unrestricted should individual behaviour be according to classical liberals?
As unrestricted as possible - so long as social stability is maintained
88
On what principles should economic activity be based according to classical liberals?
Free-market and laissez-faire principles
89
How do classical liberals view large-scale welfare?
They reject it as leading to immoral behaviour and dependency
90
Who are key classical liberal thinkers mentioned?
Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill
91
When did modern liberalism emerge and what was it a reaction against?
The early 20th century - as a reaction against free-market capitalism
92
Why do modern liberals believe the free market has not produced freedom for everyone?
Freedom is more than just being left alone by the state
93
What do modern liberals argue about the market?
It has to be regulated to combat inequality and poverty
94
What do modern liberals maintain about formal equality?
It does not lead to equality of opportunity because of existing inequalities
95
How should developmental individualism be promoted according to modern liberals?
By society through an interventionist state and a managed economy
96
How can individualism be assisted according to modern liberals?
Through collective action like state intervention to alleviate poverty
97
What type of freedom is required to establish real equality of opportunity according to modern liberals?
Positive freedom
98
What economic approach do modern liberals believe is needed?
Economic management of capitalism rather than a free-market approach
99
Who is a key modern liberal thinker mentioned?
John Rawls
100
101
What are some common views on the state shared by classical and modern liberals?
It should function by regulations - be decentralised - guarantee rights - and exercise authority with consent
102
What theory do classical and modern liberals believe the state is based on?
Mechanistic theory – created by people to serve their interests
103
What is the classical liberal view on the role of the state?
A minimalist view
104
What should the state simply establish according to classical liberals?
A stable framework for human activity
105
What should be left to individuals and businesses according to classical liberals?
Everything beyond the stable framework
106
What should the minimal or 'night watchman' state focus on?
Maintaining order - ensuring contract compliance - and providing external protection
107
How should state intervention in social and economic life be viewed by classical liberals?
It should be kept to a minimum to protect liberty
108
What should the state's role be according to classical liberals in terms of the economy?
To maintain an orderly environment for trade - currency stability - and conditions for a flourishing free market
109
What concept did some late 19th-century classical liberals link their arguments to?
Social Darwinism and the 'survival of the fittest'
110
What did Herbert Spencer argue in 'The Man versus the State'?
Individual success or failure depends on adapting to economic conditions - implying no state welfare
111
What is the modern liberal view on the role of the state?
A larger role to help individuals be free and achieve potential - an enabling state
112
What social responsibility do modern liberals believe the state has?
To reduce or remove social and economic disadvantages
113
How do modern liberals believe an enlarged state enhances equality of opportunity?
By using taxation to provide welfare - health - and education
114
What should the enabling state aim to improve according to modern liberals?
The lot of the poorest without creating equality of outcome
115
What did the UK Liberal governments of 1906–1914 introduce as examples of modern liberal state intervention?
Welfare reforms like state pensions and insurance
116
Whose call for state-directed capitalism influenced UK economic strategy from 1945–1979?
Economist John Maynard Keynes
117
What did William Beveridge's Beveridge Report propose?
State provision to tackle the 'five giant' evils threatening freedom and potential
118
Which UK government created the welfare state based partly on the Beveridge Report?
The Labour government (1945–1951)
119
120
What fundamental need regarding the economy do classical and modern liberals agree on?
A capitalist economy
121
Why do liberals believe in a market-based capitalist economy?
It reflects private property as a natural right - complements individualism - and benefits everyone
122
What did classical liberals' support for negative liberty lead them to endorse economically?
Laissez-faire capitalism
123
What famous work by Adam Smith is a key classical liberal statement on the economy?
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
124
How did classical liberals believe laissez-faire capitalism would operate?
Through the 'invisible hand' of market forces to increase prosperity
125
What did classical liberals believe would happen if the state adopted a 'hands off' approach?
The wealth of the successful would 'trickle down' to the rest of society
126
What did classical liberals believe had to be scrapped to promote global free trade?
Domestic economic protection like duties and tariffs
127
On what did the classical liberal laissez-faire approach rest?
Egoistical individualism and human rationalism/virtue
128
What do modern liberals advocate regarding the economy?
Government or state intervention - drawing on Keynesianism
129
Whose ideas influenced economic policy in the USA and UK based on modern liberalism?
John Maynard Keynes
130
What do modern liberals believe about the free market?
It is not self-regulating and is prone to cyclical slumps
131
What are the consequences of cyclical slumps according to modern liberals?
Mass unemployment and loss of individual freedom
132
What do modern liberals believe is required to guide the economy and regulate demand?
State- or government-directed capitalism (dirigisme)
133
What are the goals of state-directed capitalism according to modern liberals?
Sustainable economic growth and full employment
134
How should governments prevent economic slumps according to modern liberals?
By managing the level of demand in the economy
135
What should governments do when facing an economic slump according to modern liberals?
Introduce public spending programmes to create jobs and stimulate the economy
136
What was one of the aims of the Keynesian economic approach?
To prevent economic depression leading to illiberal regimes
137
138
What is the shared optimistic view of human nature in classical and modern liberalism?
Individuals are unique - have intrinsic value - the ability to reason - self-awareness - capability - personality - and free will
139
On what essential feature of politics and society do both classical and modern liberalism agree?
Individualism
140
How do classical and modern liberalism differ in promoting individualism?
They disagree on the methods
141
What value do both classical and modern liberals advocate?
Tolerance of differing values - customs - and beliefs
142
What do both classical and modern liberals consider tolerance to be?
A natural right
143
What economic system do both classical and modern liberalism maintain is the best?
Capitalism
144
Why do they both support capitalism?
It reinforces individualism - strengthens private property rights - and benefits everyone
145
What do both classical and modern liberals oppose regarding the economy?
State ownership
146
What type of state do both classical and modern liberals believe in?
A constitutional state to limit government power and protect rights
147
What principle of government do both classical and modern liberals call for?
Government by consent
148
How do classical and modern liberals define liberty differently?
Classical: negative freedom (freedom from interference); Modern: positive freedom (freedom through enablement)
149
How do classical and modern liberals view taxation differently?
Modern: important for positive freedom; Classical: 'state robbery' to be restricted
150
What economic approach do modern liberals endorse?
Keynesian-style management of market forces and demand
151
What economic approach do classical liberals embrace?
Laissez-faire capitalism with minimal state involvement
152
How do modern and classical liberals differ in their support for democracy?
Modern: support liberal and representative democracy; Classical: more ambivalent - fearing 'tyranny of the majority'
153
What type of state do modern liberals call for - in contrast to classical liberalism's minimal state?
An enabling state with a larger social and economic role
154
155
Who is commonly regarded as a founder of liberal thought and a key figure in classical liberalism?
John Locke
156
What was Locke’s most important work mentioned?
Two Treatises of Government (1690)
157
What two key liberal ideas did Locke develop in this work?
Social contract theory and limited government
158
What is social contract theory according to Locke?
Society - state - and government are based on a voluntary agreement where citizens obey laws if the state guarantees rights
159
According to Locke's social contract - what happens if the state doesn't uphold citizens' rights?
Citizens are no longer obliged to obey the state's laws
160
How did Locke view the traditional idea of the state and monarchy?
He rejected the view that the state was God-given or monarchs had a 'divine right'
161
What did Locke argue about the 'true' state?
It would be established by humans to serve their interests and rest on voluntary consent
162
According to Locke - why would people accept the authority of the 'true' state?
As long as it upheld natural rights like property and liberty
163
What did Locke conclude if the state broke its contract by disregarding natural rights?
People would be entitled to oppose or remove it
164
What is limited government according to Locke?
Government should be limited by a constitution's rules and based on consent from below
165
What did the concept of limited government reject?
The arbitrary rule of medieval monarchs and 'divine right'
166
How did Locke argue the contractual nature of the state embodied limited government?
The governed are guaranteed certain rights
167
Under Locke's social contract - what is the government limited to?
Representing the people's interests and gaining ongoing consent
168
How would the limited nature of the state be achieved according to Locke?
By dispersing powers between the Executive - legislature - and judiciary
169
On what was Locke's 'social contract' based?
Reason: rational people wouldn't submit to arbitrary rule as it's not in their interests
170
According to Locke - whom should the state serve?
The individual
171
What are key features of Locke’s social contract mentioned?
It was based on reason and implied the state should serve the individual
172
Was Locke a democrat in the full modern sense?
No - he accepted inequality based on property rights
173
What right of the people did Locke believe in that is often cited as an influence on the US Declaration of Rights?
The right to remove an unjust government
174
What was Locke's stance on religious tolerance?
He argued for it but was against extending it to atheists
175
176
Who is commonly regarded as a founder of liberal thought and a key figure in classical liberalism?
John Locke
177
What was Locke’s most important work mentioned?
Two Treatises of Government (1690)
178
What two key liberal ideas did Locke develop in this work?
Social contract theory and limited government
179
What is social contract theory according to Locke?
Society - state - and government are based on a voluntary agreement where citizens obey laws if the state guarantees rights
180
According to Locke's social contract - what happens if the state doesn't uphold citizens' rights?
Citizens are no longer obliged to obey the state's laws
181
How did Locke view the traditional idea of the state and monarchy?
He rejected the view that the state was God-given or monarchs had a 'divine right'
182
What did Locke argue about the 'true' state?
It would be established by humans to serve their interests and rest on voluntary consent
183
According to Locke - why would people accept the authority of the 'true' state?
As long as it upheld natural rights like property and liberty
184
What did Locke conclude if the state broke its contract by disregarding natural rights?
People would be entitled to oppose or remove it
185
What is limited government according to Locke?
Government should be limited by a constitution's rules and based on consent from below
186
What did the concept of limited government reject?
The arbitrary rule of medieval monarchs and 'divine right'
187
How did Locke argue the contractual nature of the state embodied limited government?
The governed are guaranteed certain rights
188
Under Locke's social contract - what is the government limited to?
Representing the people's interests and gaining ongoing consent
189
How would the limited nature of the state be achieved according to Locke?
By dispersing powers between the Executive - legislature - and judiciary
190
On what was Locke's 'social contract' based?
Reason: rational people wouldn't submit to arbitrary rule as it's not in their interests
191
According to Locke - whom should the state serve?
The individual
192
What are key features of Locke’s social contract mentioned?
It was based on reason and implied the state should serve the individual
193
Was Locke a democrat in the full modern sense?
No - he accepted inequality based on property rights
194
What right of the people did Locke believe in that is often cited as an influence on the US Declaration of Rights?
The right to remove an unjust government
195
What was Locke's stance on religious tolerance?
He argued for it but was against extending it to atheists
196
197
Who was John Rawls and what was his main work?
A modern liberal - author of A Theory of Justice (1971)
198
What did Rawls attempt to construct in society?
A society where individual freedom coexisted with limited inequality
199
What was Rawls's theory of justice?
Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
200
What is required to create a just society according to Rawls?
Formal equality and greater economic and social equality
201
What type of state does this require according to Rawls?
An enabling state
202
What policies would an enabling state adopt based on Rawls's theory?
Redistributing wealth - increasing public spending - and progressive taxation
203
What is the 'veil of ignorance' concept in Rawls's theory?
Individuals agree on society's type without knowing their own position in it
204
What kind of society would rational and empathetic individuals devise behind the 'veil'?
A new society where the poor received better treatment
205
What kind of society would people choose behind the 'veil' and why?
A fairer - more equal society because they wouldn't know their own position
206
What would be the basis of the enabling state required by this choice?
Government by consent
207
What would still exist in Rawls's just society?
Inequalities of outcome reflecting individual differences
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When are these inequalities tolerable according to Rawls?
As long as deprivation does not worsen
209
Who was Betty Friedan and what was her major work?
Author of The Feminine Mystique (1963)
210
What did Friedan argue about the legal status and capabilities of women and men?
They are of equal worth and equally capable
211
What must be rejected according to Friedan?
Oppressive laws and social views
212
What restricts women's choices and opportunities according to Friedan?
Social conditioning through family - education - and media
213
What does this conditioning emphasize instead of careers?
Unfulfilling domestic roles
214
What is needed to change this according to Friedan?
More extensive opportunities and a shift in social attitudes
215
What did Friedan believe was the only realistic way to make progress for women?
Legal change
216
What did Friedan believe confrontation was in achieving progress for women?
Counter-productive
217
What does legal equality represent in Friedan's view of feminism?
A modern form of the liberal belief in tolerance
218
How is Friedan's feminism liberal in its approach to achieving equality?
It seeks legal measures to secure greater opportunity for women to compete equally with men
