Socialism Flashcards
(206 cards)
1
Q
What is socialism generally opposed to?
A
Capitalism
2
Q
What key ideas does socialism seek to found society on?
A
Collectivism and common humanity
3
Q
What do collectivism and common humanity inform in socialist thought?
A
Other socialist values and principles like equality and welfare
4
Q
What does collectivism maintain?
A
Humans achieve objectives more effectively through collective action - and society is transformed by collective endeavour
5
Q
How do socialists view humans in relation to society?
A
As social creatures with a tendency for cooperation and sociability; individuals are understood through their place in society
6
Q
What is an argument in favour of collectivism regarding human nature?
A
Humans are social creatures with a natural tendency to work together
7
Q
What is an argument in favour of collectivism regarding society?
A
- Group interests should prioritise individual self-interest
- community membership offers fulfilment
8
Q
What is an argument in favour of collectivism regarding the economy?
A
Collective effort uses economic potential more efficiently than individual competition
9
Q
What is an argument in favour of collectivism regarding the state?
A
Collective action via the state ensures fairer distribution through intervention and planning
10
Q
How do different socialist strands vary in their commitment to collectivism?
A
Marxists advocate it fully (‘from each according to ability…’) - while revisionists accept some free market
11
Q
What is an example of Marxist collectivism in practice?
A
Communist regimes like the USSR and North Korea
12
Q
What is an example of revisionist socialist collectivism in practice?
A
The 1945-1951 UK Labour government’s limited nationalisation
13
Q
What is common humanity according to socialists?
A
The view that humans are social creatures with a tendency for cooperation and rationality
14
Q
What is an argument in favour of common humanity based on cooperative effort?
A
It produces the best results - fosters connections - and is superior to capitalist competition
15
Q
What is an argument in favour of common humanity based on moral motivation?
A
Humans can be driven by a desire to contribute to societal betterment
16
Q
What is an example given of collectivism in practice?
A
The cooperative movement - starting with the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers
17
Q
What are cooperatives?
A
Voluntary associations providing economic assistance - owned and run by members
18
Q
Who benefits from cooperatives?
A
Workers or consumers through shared earnings or cheap goods
19
Q
What types of cooperatives are mentioned?
A
Farming - wholesale - mutual insurance - credit/banking - and housing associations
20
Q
What are two criticisms sometimes made against collectivism?
A
It suppresses individuality and diversity - and leads to arbitrary state power/erodes freedoms
21
Q
On what grounds do socialists support collectivism?
A
- Humans are social
- group interests are important
- collective effort is efficient
- and state action ensures fairer distribution
22
Q
A
23
Q
What is arguably the fundamental value of socialism?
A
The pursuit of social equality or equality of outcome
24
Q
What are the two key principles underpinning the socialist idea of equality?
A
Social equality/equality of outcome and egalitarianism
25
What is egalitarianism?
A theory or practice designed to remove or reduce inequalities and ensure a fair chance in life
26
What do revolutionary socialists demand regarding equality and property?
Absolute equality in rewards and opportunities - abolition of private property - and common ownership
27
What do social democrats call for regarding equality within a reformed capitalist economy?
Relative equalising via welfare - government spending - and progressive taxation
28
What do social democrats believe about material incentives and equality of opportunity?
Material incentives remain important - and greater emphasis is on equal opportunity
29
What do socialists argue common ownership of production means ensures?
That all can participate and benefit
30
Why do socialists argue wealth should be owned collectively?
It is created by communal effort
31
What do socialists believe private property encourages?
Materialism and the false belief that wealth brings fulfilment
32
What social conflict does private property generate according to socialists?
Between 'have' and 'have not' groups
33
What is equality of outcome?
People's experiences of society should be more or less the same
34
What is absolute equality?
Everyone contributing to society receives the same rewards
35
What is equality of opportunity?
Everyone has an equal chance to make the best of their abilities without artificial barriers
36
What is universal welfare?
All individuals have an equal minimum standard of living guaranteed by the state
37
Who generally supports equality of outcome?
Fundamentalist socialists who reject capitalism
38
Who generally supports absolute equality?
Marxists who support communism
39
Who generally supports equality of opportunity?
Social democrats and the Third Way on meritocratic grounds
40
Who generally supports universal welfare?
Social democrats as it protects the vulnerable
41
Who generally rejects equality of outcome?
Social democrats and the Third Way as artificial levelling
42
Who generally rejects absolute equality?
Social democrats and the Third Way as impractical and destabilising
43
Who generally rejects equality of opportunity?
Marxists because it doesn't remove capitalism and some social democrats who want greater equality
44
Who generally rejects universal welfare?
Marxists because it doesn't remove capitalism and the Third Way who support targeted welfare
45
What are arguments in favour of equality?
Ensures fairness - reinforces collectivism and cooperation - and satisfies basic human needs
46
47
What do socialists believe social class explains in society?
The most important divisions
48
What idea related to workers has influenced socialist thought?
Workers' control
49
What do socialists believe members of a social class share?
Similar outlooks and aims
50
What do socialists consider social classes to be?
The principal agents of change
51
In what two ways do socialists use the term 'workers' control'?
Ownership/decision-making by employees - and control of the state by workers
52
Whose interests is socialism ideologically committed to represent and improve?
The working class
53
How do Marxists define a person's class position?
Economically determined by their relationship to the means of production
54
What conflict do Marxists see as inevitable?
Between capitalists/bourgeoisie and the working class/proletariat
55
What do Marxists believe the ruling bourgeoisie use to maintain dominance?
The state apparatus (political and legal system)
56
What does class conflict eventually lead to according to Marxists?
A proletarian revolution overthrowing capitalism and resulting in a classless society
57
What happens to the state in a Marxist classless society?
It withers away
58
How do social democrats define social class?
More flexibly - emphasizing income and status differences between occupational groups
59
How do social democrats believe socialist objectives can be achieved regarding class?
Through targeted government intervention to narrow class distinctions
60
What role does the state play in reducing class inequalities for social democrats?
Providing welfare and redistribution schemes
61
How do social democrats differ from Marxists on class conflict?
They advocate class consensus and peaceful social improvement
62
What are socialist justifications for workers' control based on regarding human nature?
Promoting collective effort and group interests - tackling workplace alienation - and challenging the view of workers as commodities
63
Why do socialists believe workers should control production based on the economy?
Workers are the most important element and should dilute or replace capitalist control
64
What did French syndicalists call for regarding workers' control?
Full workers' control over the economy based on trade unions
65
How do socialists see workers' control as a step towards a socialist society?
'Moderate' control enables limited reforms - and industrial self-management reinforces raising the working class's status
66
Why has the link between socialist ideology and working-class politics weakened in recent decades?
Deindustrialisation - the rise of the service/information economy - and an expanding middle class
67
How have moderate socialist parties adapted to this weakening link?
By appealing to non-manual workers
68
What is a criticism of workers' control regarding business success?
Businesses rely on risk-takers and investors - not just workers
69
What entrepreneurial qualities might workers lack in a worker-controlled workplace?
Those required to make the workplace thrive
70
What managerial expertise might manual employees lack if they assume control of functions like hiring?
That needed to avoid undermining economic prospects
71
72
What does revolutionary socialism reject in favour of overthrowing existing political structures?
Democratic methods to achieve a socialist society
73
What are examples of revolutionary socialist ideologies?
Marxism and Blanquism
74
Why was the revolutionary road to socialism popular in the 19th century?
Early industrialisation caused poverty and exploitation - and workers lacked political participation
75
What did national liberation movements after 1945 try to adopt revolutionary socialism for?
Removing colonial powers - rapid modernisation - and catching up with industrial countries
76
Give examples of revolutionary socialist movements in the post-1945 era?
Mao's Chinese communists - the Viet Cong - and Castro's Cuban insurgents
77
What is a justification for revolution based on the bourgeois state?
It is an instrument of class oppression upholding capitalist interests
78
Why won't gradual change lead to socialism according to revolutionary socialists?
The ruling class and bourgeois values are too entrenched
79
Why is a total transformation of society required according to revolutionary socialists?
The ruling class won't give up power without a fight
80
What method do revolutionary socialists often resort to in establishing regimes?
Violence
81
Give examples of civil wars linked to revolutionary socialist movements?
Russia (1918-1921) - China (1946-1949) - and Mexico (1910-1920)
82
Why would attempts to reform capitalism undermine socialism according to revolutionary socialists?
Capitalism is based on inequality and exploitation
83
What has revolutionary socialism usually resulted in?
Fundamentalist regimes claiming to be based on socialist principles
84
What key issue arose in these revolutionary socialist regimes regarding ownership?
They replaced private property with state ownership - not common ownership
85
What did the lack of genuine common ownership prevent in Marxist terms?
Further stages of Marxism from occurring
86
How did these regimes use the term 'communist'?
To justify brutal suppression of opposition
87
What has happened to Marxist theory since the 2007-2008 economic crash?
It has undergone a rebirth with increased book sales
88
What event allowed Marxist theory to be severed from the totalitarian Soviet Union?
The collapse of the USSR in the late 1980s
89
Who inspired Blanquism?
Louis-Auguste Blanqui - a French radical socialist
90
What did Blanquism call for regarding the seizure of power?
A rapid seizure by a small - secret elite of armed socialist conspirators
91
What type of dictatorship did Blanquism advocate as temporary?
One formed by the elite group to dispossess the bourgeoisie and control industry
92
What type of programme did Blanquism call for being imposed on the population?
A socialist programme - by force if necessary
93
What conditions did Blanquism envision for workers?
State-assured equal conditions in industrial and agricultural producer associations
94
Whose revolutionary socialism was influenced by Blanquism?
Lenin's
95
96
What did Western socialist parties do after 1945 regarding their aims?
Moved towards electoral politics and aimed to reform capitalism rather than abolish it
97
What is social democracy?
A revisionist form of socialism attempting to reconcile capitalism with state intervention
98
What are the four assumptions of social democracy?
Capitalism creates wealth unfairly - state intervention protects the public - peaceful methods should bring change - socialism is morally superior and focuses on social justice
99
What did some socialists conclude about Marxism in the late 19th century?
That it was flawed
100
Whose revisionist study argued that capitalism was not developing along Marxist lines?
Eduard Bernstein's Evolutionary Socialism (1899)
101
What were Bernstein's conclusions about capitalism?
It was resilient - not facing collapse or deepening class conflict - and not brutally exploitative
102
What did Bernstein call for to reform capitalism peacefully?
State ownership of key industries - legal safeguards - and welfare measures
103
What type of economy is seen in social democracy in practice?
A mixed economy with nationalised key industries
104
Give an example of a social democratic government in practice?
The Attlee Labour government of 1945–1951
105
What did Western socialist parties recognise about the market economy in the 20th century?
Its dynamism and productivity
106
What policy did they pursue as a result?
A revisionist policy of reforming capitalism
107
Give an example of a Western socialist party pursuing this policy?
The West German Social Democratic Party (1950s)
108
What three key elements did social democracy adopt as a programme?
Keynesian economics - reform of capitalism via the welfare state - and economic management to maintain full employment
109
What was the central tension for social democracy after 1945?
Balancing economic efficiency and egalitarianism
110
What concealed this tension in the early post-war decades?
Economic growth - high employment - and low inflation providing tax revenues for welfare
111
What exposed this central tension in the 1970s–1980s?
Economic downturn with rising unemployment and increased demand for welfare with declining tax funding
112
What critical dilemma did social democrats face in the 1970s–1980s?
Reducing inflation/taxes or prioritising welfare funding
113
What economic shifts in the 1980s–1990s reduced social democracy's electoral base?
Shift to a service economy and contraction of the working class due to deindustrialisation
114
What political event further impacted social democracy's appeal?
The collapse of the Soviet communist bloc (1989–1991) discrediting state-led reform
115
116
What did reformist socialist parties do from the 1980s following the crisis of social democracy?
Moved away from traditional social democratic principles to embrace the Third Way
117
What is the Third Way also known as?
Neo-revisionism
118
What does the Third Way represent?
A 'middle ground' alternative to traditional social democracy and neo-liberalism in a globalised economy
119
What does the Third Way advocate the primacy of?
The market - community - consensus - and the competition state
120
Where was the Third Way first introduced and by whom?
In the UK by the Labour Party or 'New Labour' under Tony Blair in the 1990s
121
What was Peter Mandelson's quote reflecting the Third Way's view on wealth?
'We are intensely relaxed about people getting filthy rich… as long as they pay their taxes'
122
Who is the chief intellectual proponent of the Third Way?
Anthony Giddens
123
What is a key feature of the Third Way regarding the market and state?
It stresses the primacy of the market over 'top down' state intervention
124
What values does the Third Way emphasise besides the market?
Community and moral responsibility
125
What social model does the Third Way support?
One based on consensus and harmony
126
What is the Third Way's aim regarding social divisions compared to traditional socialism?
It promotes social inclusion rather than a commitment to equality
127
What type of state does the Third Way advocate?
A competition (or market) state
128
What economic approach does the Third Way endorse?
A dynamic market economy and enterprise culture for wealth creation
129
What socialist policy does the Third Way downplay?
Redistributing wealth through progressive taxation
130
From what moral and social aspects of neo-liberal economics does the Third Way distance itself?
The 'downside' of a market-driven free-for-all
131
What type of liberalism does the Third Way emphasise?
Communitarian liberalism where autonomy operates within a communal context
132
How does this differ from traditional socialism?
It moves away from the focus on class differences and inequality
133
What does the Third Way endorse that might seem opposed?
Self-reliance and mutual dependence - and the market economy and fairness
134
What type of equality and social system does the Third Way emphasise?
Equality of opportunity and a meritocratic social system
135
How does the Third Way view great individual wealth?
It does not oppose it if it helps overall prosperity
136
How should welfare function according to the Third Way?
It should target marginalised groups and enable people to improve their own situation
137
What does the competition state aim to develop?
The national workforce's skills and knowledge base
138
What does the competition state emphasise through social investment?
The importance of education for job prospects and economic growth
139
What is a major socialist criticism of the Third Way?
It lacks real socialist content - with watered-down commitments to equality and redistribution
140
What do many socialists view neo-revisionism as?
A Labour rebranding exercise to attract middle-class voters and business interests
141
Despite socialist criticism - what did New Labour's neo-revisionism introduce?
Important measures promoting social justice and improving the position of the disadvantaged
142
Give examples of these measures?
The minimum wage and family tax credits
143
What other left-of-centre parties have Third Way ideas influenced?
The German SDP and the South African ANC
144
145
Who are the most famous revolutionary socialists mentioned?
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
146
What are some of their influential works?
The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867 - 1885 - 1894)
147
What key idea is central to socialism according to Marx and Engels?
Social class
148
What are the three key elements of Marxism underpinned by social class?
Historical materialism - dialectic change - and revolutionary class consciousness
149
What is historical materialism?
Historical and social development explained by economic and class factors
150
How does the economic system influence society according to historical materialism?
It 'conditions' all other aspects
151
What is dialectic change?
Each historical stage has its own economic system and class structure - with struggle between exploiters and exploited driving change until communism
152
What is revolutionary class consciousness?
The exploited class must become aware of its interests and determined to overthrow oppressors
153
How is human nature viewed by Marx and Engels?
Socially determined and only fully expressed under communism
154
What are humans essentially according to Marx and Engels?
Social beings influenced more by nurture than nature
155
What are humans capable of according to Marx and Engels?
Sociability - rationality - cooperation - and significant personal/social development
156
What kind of lives are humans capable of leading based on work according to Marx and Engels?
Satisfying lives based on fulfilling work with free creative production
157
Why does this not exist under capitalism according to Marx and Engels?
Capitalism leads to human alienation by separating people from their true selves
158
From what are workers alienated under capitalism?
The product of their labour - their work colleagues - the production process - and their human capabilities
159
How are workers alienated from the product of their labour?
They do not own what is produced
160
How are workers alienated from their colleagues?
Due to capitalism's competitive ethos and division of labour
161
How are workers alienated from the production process?
It doesn't represent human creative power
162
How are workers alienated from their human capabilities?
They cannot freely create and enjoy beautiful things
163
How are workers freed under communism according to Marx and Engels?
They can realise their potential through many activities - increased leisure - creative work with others - and meaningful work meeting needs
164
What disappears under communism according to Marx and Engels?
Alienation
165
What is established under communism according to Marx and Engels?
The 'cooperative man'
166
167
What type of socialist was Beatrice Webb?
A Fabian socialist
168
What Marxist theory did Webb reject?
The theory of class struggle
169
What did Webb favour instead of class struggle?
The 'inevitability of gradualness'
170
How did Webb believe socialism would be established?
Peacefully by passing democratic reforms gradually
171
What was Webb's view of workers' capabilities and democracy?
Limited - selfish - and uninformed - so democracy should be representative
172
What did Webb believe the 'economic side of democracy' entailed?
The expansion of the state to deliver socialism
173
Why did Webb prefer representative democracy over direct democracy or workers' control?
It would lead to a skilled 'socialist' governing class subject to democratic constraints
174
What did Webb see as evidence that collectivism would bring socialism?
The gradual growth of state power
175
How did Webb describe the changing nature of the state?
From police power to housekeeping on a national scale
176
What did Webb believe the state's ability to deliver socialism depended on?
Highly trained specialists and administrators
177
What type of socialist was Rosa Luxemburg?
A Marxist revolutionary
178
What did Luxemburg oppose?
Evolutionary socialism
179
With whom did Luxemburg disagree over key features of Marxism?
Lenin
180
What did Luxemburg believe about evolutionary socialism and capitalism?
It would leave capitalist economic exploitation intact
181
What did Luxemburg believe was necessary for true change?
Revolution
182
What did Luxemburg believe the struggle by the proletariat creates?
The class consciousness needed for revolution
183
What did Luxemburg say about the masses?
'The masses are the decisive element...the rock on which the final victory...will be built'
184
How did Luxemburg believe class consciousness would develop?
Naturally from within the workers themselves through strikes
185
What would proletarian discontent erupt into according to Luxemburg's theory of mass strike?
Numerous strikes culminating in a spontaneous mass strike leading to revolution
186
How did Luxemburg's view on the need for a leading party differ from Lenin's?
She did not believe a small - disciplined party was needed to lead workers
187
188
Who was Anthony Crosland?
The leading post-war revisionist theorist of British socialism
189
What were some of Crosland's works?
The Future of Socialism (1956)
190
What was Crosland's view of modern capitalism?
It lacks inherent contradictions needed for revolution; managed capitalism can deliver greater social equality
191
What did Crosland believe the state must do to capitalism?
Manage it to deliver greater social equality - egalitarian distribution - and remove class barriers
192
What did Crosland believe governments pursuing Keynesian economics could achieve?
High employment - low inflation - and continuous growth
193
What was Anthony Giddens' role in the Third Way?
An important intellectual figure
194
What books did Giddens write?
The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy (1998)
195
What did Giddens reject regarding state intervention?
The economic and social engineering of previous social democratic governments
196
What did Giddens believe the free market encouraged?
Desirable personal qualities like responsibility
197
What did Giddens believe high levels of government spending were required for?
Welfare and redistribution
198
What was the purpose of economic expansion according to Giddens?
To fund welfare and improve living standards for the poor while preserving those of the affluent
199
What type of state did Giddens advocate?
The 'social investment' state
200
What did Giddens believe state welfare and redistribution fostered?
A culture of dependency
201
What kind of 'contract' did Giddens propose between the state and citizen?
The state invests in infrastructure and education - and people help themselves
202
What did Giddens believe was more important than equality of outcome?
Equality of opportunity
203
What is needed for a market-driven system to be fair according to Giddens?
Everyone needs an equal opportunity to better themselves
204
What would government action be required for according to Giddens?
To control the inevitable widening inequalities of outcome
205
What did Giddens believe was important to offset the negative effects of the free market?
Community and responsibility
206
What did Giddens believe community and responsibility would promote?
Social cohesion - shared values - and individual and social responsibility
