1
Q
development
A
- gene-environment interactions across a person’s lifespan
- changes and continuities that occur within the individual between conception and death
2
Q
neuroscience
A
study of the nervous system
3
Q
what two processes lead to developmental change?
A
- maturation
- learning
4
Q
maturation
A
- biologically-timed changes within a person according to that individuals genetic plan
- plan is influenced by environmental conditions that shape genetically determined processes
5
Q
learning
A
- relatively permanent changes in out thoughts, behaviours, and feelings as a result of our experiences
- acquisition of neuronal representations of new info through learning processes
6
Q
can controlled processes become automatic?
A
- yes through practice
- i.e. looking both ways before crossing is automatic in adulthood
7
Q
interactionist perspective
A
- maturation and learning interact during development and cause the most developmental changes
8
Q
how does maturation impact learning? how does learning impact maturation?
A
- can’t teach four month old to talk (not mature)
- properly fed child put in isolated room (mature, but no learning = slowed development)
9
Q
when does most human development occur?
A
infancy and childhood
10
Q
4 ways to study an infant’s basic sensory abilities
A
- habituation
- event-related potentials (ERP)
- high-amplitude sucking method
- preferential looking method
11
Q
habituation
A
- “a decrease in the responsiveness to a stimulus following its repeated presentation”
- if infants can detect differences between two stimuli
- infants tend to show interest in novel stimuli
- habituate infant to one stimuli, introduce new stimuli
- measure physiological changes (heart rate/breathing) OR behavioural orienting responses (head/eye movements)
- new stimuli = burst of activity
- once habituated = return to baseline levels
12
Q
dishabituation
A
- increase in responsiveness to stimulus that is somehow different than habituated stimulus
- i.e. habituate blue square, present green square = more attn given to green square = infant can discriminate colours
13
Q
event-related potentials (ERP)
A
- cap w/ electrodes placed on scalp of infant
- presenting visual stimulus = activity in occipital lobe
- presenting auditory stimulus = activity in temporal lobe
14
Q
high-amplitude sucking method
A
- special pacifier used to measure baseline sucking rate
- shaping procedure: infant given control over presentation of stimulus (i.e. musical notes)
- if infant sucks on pacifier at faster rate, switch in pacifier makes stimulus present itself
- if infant likes stimulus, they increase sucking rate and if not, they suck at baseline rate
*works bc infants can control their sucking
15
Q
preference method
A
- infant put in looking chamber to look at two stimuli
- researchers can measure which direction the infant is looking in
- i.e. kids prefer looking at faces
16
Q
issue with preference method
A
- if infants look at both stimuli for same amnt of time: can be preference OR unable to discriminate
- thus, pref. method mostly used after researchers know that infants have developed discrimination skill
17
Q
competence-performance distinction
A
- an individual may fail a task not bc they lack the cognitive abilities, but bc they can’t demonstrate those abilities
- i.e. children can have preferences BUT can’t verbally communicate them: doesn’t mean they lack skill of preference
- imp when studying kids/infants
18
Q
are developmental studies more concerned w/ single points in time or repeated measures over time?
A
repeated measures over time
19
Q
longitudinal design
A
- developmental research design in which same individuals are repeatedly studied over some subset of lifespan
- i.e. same group of people every year
20
Q
drawbacks of longitudinal design
A
- expensive/time-consuming
- selective attrition
- practice effect
21
Q
selective attrition
A
- when some ppl r likelier to drop out of a study than others, making samples non-representative of the original population
- quit/die/become unfit to continue = biased
- ultimately, only enthusiastic participants stayed until the very end
22
Q
practice effects
A
changes in responses due to repeated testing
23
Q
two types of developmental research/experiment design
A
- longitudinal design
- cross-sectional design
24
Q
cross-sectional design
A
individuals from diff age groups r studied at the same point in time
25
drawbacks to cross-sectional design
- can't distinguish age effects from generational effects (cohort effect)
- can't directly assess individual developmental change
26
best way to study development?
combine longitudinal and cross-sectional design
27
what contains genetic information in the cell?
chromosomes
28
what is made when sperm penetrates an ovum?
- zygote
- single cell w/ 46 chromosomes: 23 from each parent
29
what is a chromosome made of?
- threadlike structure made from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
30
what do segments of DNA have?
- genes
- comprise the chemical code for development
31
how many genes do chromosomes have?
30-40 thousand
32
what happens to the zygote?
- divides at exponential rate
- splits into billions w/ same 46 chromosomes
33
how many genetic combinations can be made by each parent?
- over 8 million each
- 64 trillion together
34
types of twins
- monozygotic
- dizygotic
35
monozygotic twins
- genetically identical
- same sperm and ovum
36
dizygotic twins
- share abt. 50% of genes
- diff sperm and ovum
37
if two monozygotic twin pairs marry each other, what are their kids?
- full genetic siblings
- 50% genetically identical
38
who determines the sex of the child?
males
39
which pair of chromosomes determine sex?
23rd pair
40
genotype
- a person’s inherited genes
- expresses the phenotype
41
phenotype
the expressions of a persons genotype in terms of observable characteristics
42
four patterns of gene expression
- simple dominant-recessive inheritance
- polygenic inheritance
- codominance
- sex-linked inheritance
43
simple dominant-recessive inheritance
- when the expression of a trait is determined by a single pair of alleles
- homozygous and heterozygous conditions
44
alleles
- specific form of a gene
- one inherited from each parent
45
homozygous condition
when someone has identical alleles of a gene
46
heterozygous condition
- when someone has diff. alleles of a particular gene
- only dominant allele is expressed
- recessive allele is not expressed BUT still heritable
47
polygenic inheritance
- when the expression of a trait is determined by the interaction of multiple genes
- no single gene can account for most complex behaviours
48
codominance
- two dominant alleles are both fully and equally expressed to produce the phenotype
49
example of codominance
- A, B, O blood type proteins in humans
- A and B are both dominant: when both are present, both get expressed
50
sex-linked inheritance
- when the expression of a trait is determined by genes on the X or Y chromosome
- X chromosome bigger = more X linked traits/disorders
- since females have 2 X chromosomes, they r less likely to express recessive allele than males (females rarely express X linked recessive gene disorders)
51
sex-linked recessive gene disorders are less common in ____?
females
52
who passes down Y-linked disorders?
exclusively male parents to their male offspring
53
canalization principle
- within a species, genotype restricts the phenotype to a small number of possible developmental outcomes
- all members of a species will share many phenotypic traits despite diff. interactions w/ environment
- some developmental processes are buffered against environmental variability
54
example of canalization principle
- infant babbling
- despite diff. languages existing, all infants babble in the same way regardless of if they are deaf/hearing
55
range-of-reaction principle
genotype establishes a range of possible phenotypes in response to different kinds of individual life experiences
56
how do canalization and range-of-reactions work?
- two step process
- canalization: restrict range of possible phenotype on basis of species (upper/lower range of traits)
- range of reactions: environment makes some genes likelier to express
- i.e. height has potential range, specific height determined by environment
57
three ways ur genes influence environmental experiences
- passive genotype/environment correlations
- evocative genotype/environment correlations
- active genotype/environment correlations
58
passive genotype/environment correlation
- the environment that parents choose to raise their children in was impacted by the parents’ own genes, so it’ll likely compliment the child’s genes
- i.e. athletic parents raise kids in an active play room w/ lots of toys
59
evocative genotype/environment correlations
- the traits we inherit affect how others react to/behave towards us thus, genes impact our social environment
- i.e. child w/ temper evokes negative responses from caregivers
60
active genotype/environment correlations
- our genotype impacts the kinds of environments we seek
- dominate in adulthood
- i.e. ppl who seek sensation may choose thrilling environments like rock-climbing
61
when do passive genotype environment correlations impact us the most?
early in life when we can’t choose our environments
62
when do active genotype environment correlations impact us the most?
start in childhood and continue into adulthood as we have more decision-making opportunities
63
when do evocative genotype environment correlations impact us the most?
throughout lifespan
64
average correlation of intelligence for mono and dizygotic twins?
- mono: 0.86 if raised in same environments
- mono: 0.72 if raised in separate environments
- di: 0.6
65
critical period
window of opportunity within an individual’s development in which particular environmental stimulation is necessary to see permanent changes in specific abilities
66
evidence for critical periods in development
- animal studies on the dvlpmt of visual pathways
- kitten 1 was visually deprived for first 6 weeks of life = permanently unable to discriminate btwn visual patterns
- kitten 2 was visually deprived for the same amnt of time but after reaching 6 weeks = visual abilities were unaffected
*therefore, critical period for visual development is first 4-6 weeks
67
rats are raised in an enriched environment (lots of toys) and a deprived environment. what happens?
differences in brain structure occurred
68
implications of critical periods
- likely to affect parental decisions
- could affect decisions to adopt a child that is above 3 yrs old/history of neglect
- affects public policy on child intervention
69
how do the rat study/cat study show that extreme simulation doesn't predict extreme performance?
- kitten study: extreme (total deprivation)
- rat: extreme environments BUT in natural environment, only minimal amnts of input may be necessary for normal development
- extreme cases not necessarily comparable to natural environment
70
relationship btwn intelligence and enhanced synaptic growth
unclear
71
does brain circuitry made permanent?
- no
- stays malleable throughout life
- excess synapses prune away
72
two types of brain development
- experience-expected brain growth
- experience-dependent brain growth
73
experience-expected brain growth
- brains have evolved to expect a certain amnt of environmental input
- with input, brains develop normally
- sufficient stimulation = normal development
74
experience-dependent brain growth
- our brains develop according to our own personal experiences
- beyond normal development, brain is plastic and shaped by personal experiences
75
sensitive periods
- developmental periods during which a specific type of learning takes place most easily
- less rigid than critical periods: we can still learn after period has passed but more difficult
- greater flexibility in the timing of when normal levels of simulation are required
76
two types of questions in developmental psychology
- normative/descriptive
- analytic
77
normative/descriptive questions
how behaviours/processes change as a function of age
78
analytic questions
what underlying mechanisms cause behaviours/processes to change as a function of age
79
diathesis stress model for schizophrenia
- predisposed to schizophrenia bc of genetic factors
- environmental factors must trigger its onset
80
master gene model of sex determination
- SRY gene on 23rd chromosome determines sex
- sex determination relies entirely on male
81
cascade gene model
- SRY gene is one of many that produces sex
- both male/female contributions are necessary for sex determination
82
androgen insensitivity syndrome
- males resistant to male hormones (androgens) that drive development of male sex characteristics
- can have outward characteristics of female, and male sex characteristics
83
when and how does the nervous system begin developing?
- 21 days (3 wks) after conception
- begins with neural plate (primitive neural tissue)
- folds and closes into neural tube (leads to brain and spinal cord)
- forebrain/midbrain/hindbrain visible after 28 days
- brain looks distinctly human 100 days after conception
- sulci/gyri (adult mammalian brain) formed after 210 days (7mos)
84
synaptic pruning
- synapses decrease from ages 1 to 10
- adaptive: get rid of synapses that aren't needed
85
ocular dominance columns
- example of synaptic pruning by sensory input
- kitten example
86
amblyopia
- cataracts can be removed from human eye but that eye can continue to have poor visual acuity (amblyopia)
- treatment: cover stronger eye with eyepatch = less competition for space in visual cortex
87
neurogenesis
- creation of new neurons
- occurs throughout life, not j childhood
88
infants presented with slides of three random objects until habituated. then presented slides of two objects and three objects. could they understand the abstract concept of three-ness?
yes
89
fluid intelligence
- abstract thinking/quick reasoning
- tend to decline w/ age
90
crystallized intelligence
- sum of accumulated intelligence
- stays generally constant w/ age
- can even increase bc of more experience
91
memory decline with aging
- younger adults better w/ working memory/episodic memory
- implicit memory: little to no decline w/ age
psych 1xx3
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