Endocrine System Vocab Flashcards
(273 cards)
1
Q
What are body cells?
A
Cells that make up the tissues and organs of the body.
2
Q
What is the gastrointestinal tract?
A
The system responsible for digestion and absorption of nutrients.
3
Q
What is the function of the kidney?
A
Filters blood to produce urine and regulate fluid balance.
4
Q
What is the role of the placenta?
A
Provides nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus.
5
Q
What is the function of the skin?
A
Protects the body and regulates temperature.
6
Q
What are prostaglandins?
A
Lipids that have various roles including inflammation and blood flow regulation.
7
Q
What does cholecystokinin do?
A
Contracts the gallbladder to release bile.
8
Q
What is gastrin?
A
Stimulates gastric acid secretion in the stomach.
9
Q
What is secretin?
A
Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes.
10
Q
What is erythropoietin?
A
Stimulates erythrocyte production in the bone marrow.
11
Q
What is human chorionic gonadotropin?
A
Sustains pregnancy by supporting the corpus luteum.
12
Q
What is activated vitamin D?
A
Increases absorption of calcium in the intestines.
13
Q
What is one function of prostaglandins?
A
Increase inflammation.
14
Q
What is one function of cholecystokinin?
A
Contracts the gallbladder.
15
Q
What does gastrin stimulate?
A
Stimulates gastric acid secretion.
16
Q
What does secretin stimulate?
A
Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes.
17
Q
What does erythropoietin stimulate?
A
Stimulates erythrocyte production.
18
Q
What does human chorionic gonadotropin do?
A
Sustains pregnancy.
19
Q
What does activated vitamin D increase?
A
Increases absorption of calcium.
20
Q
What is the thyroid gland composed of?
A
The thyroid gland is composed of a right and a left lobe on either side of the trachea, just below the thyroid cartilage.
21
Q
What is the isthmus of the thyroid gland?
A
The isthmus of the thyroid gland is a narrow strip of glandular tissue that connects the two lobes on the ventral surface of the trachea.
22
Q
What hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland?
A
The hormones secreted by the thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
23
Q
How are T4 and T3 synthesized?
A
T4 and T3 are synthesized in the thyroid gland from iodine and an amino acid called tyrosine.
24
Q
What is the difference in concentration between T4 and T3?
A
T4 is much more concentrated in the blood, whereas T3 is far more potent in affecting the metabolism of cells.
25
What role do T4 and T3 play in the body?
T4 and T3 are necessary to maintain a normal level of metabolism in all body cells.
26
How do thyroid hormones affect oxygen uptake?
Thyroid hormone aids cells in their uptake of oxygen, thus supporting the metabolic rate in the body.
27
What happens when thyroid hormone is injected?
Injections of thyroid hormone raise the metabolic rate.
28
What are the effects of removing the thyroid gland?
Removal of the thyroid gland results in a lower metabolic rate, heat loss, and poor physical and mental development.
29
What is calcitonin?
Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland.
30
When is calcitonin secreted?
Calcitonin is secreted when calcium levels in the blood are high.
31
What effect does calcitonin have on blood calcium levels?
It causes calcium loss in urine, lowering blood calcium back to normal.
32
What is one medical use of calcitonin?
Calcitonin contained in a nasal spray may be used for treatment of hypercalcemia associated with malignancy.
33
How does calcitonin affect bone health?
Calcitonin increases calcium storage in bone and strengthens weakened bone tissue, preventing spontaneous bone fractures, as in osteoporosis.
34
What is parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is secreted by the parathyroid glands.
35
What is the function of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
PTH mobilizes calcium from bones into the bloodstream.
36
Why is calcium important in the body?
Calcium is necessary for the proper functioning of body tissues, especially muscles.
37
How is calcium normally absorbed in the body?
Calcium in food is absorbed from the intestine and carried by the blood to the bones, where it is stored.
38
What role do hormones play in calcium levels?
Hormones control the homeostasis of calcium levels in the blood.
39
What happens when blood calcium levels decrease?
Parathyroid hormone secretion increases, causing calcium to leave bones and enter the bloodstream.
40
What conditions can lead to decreased blood calcium levels?
Decreased blood calcium levels can occur during pregnancy or with vitamin D deficiency.
41
What is the result of increased PTH secretion?
Increased PTH secretion brings blood calcium levels back to normal.
42
What are the adrenal glands?
The adrenal glands are two small glands, one on top of each kidney.
43
What are the two parts of each adrenal gland?
Each gland consists of an outer portion, the adrenal cortex, and an inner portion, the adrenal medulla.
44
What hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?
The adrenal cortex secretes steroids or corticosteroids, which are complex chemicals derived from cholesterol.
45
What hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete?
The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines, which are chemicals derived from amino acids.
46
How are the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla related?
The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla are two glands in one, secreting different hormones.
47
What are the three types of corticosteroids secreted by the adrenal cortex?
Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, and Sex hormones.
48
What do glucocorticoids influence?
The metabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins within all body cells and have a powerful anti-inflammatory effect.
49
What is cortisol?
A steroid hormone that raises blood sugar as part of a response to stress.
50
What is cortisone?
A hormone very similar to cortisol that can be prepared synthetically and is useful in treating inflammatory conditions.
51
What is the major mineralocorticoid?
Aldosterone.
52
What does aldosterone regulate?
The concentration of mineral salts (electrolytes) and water in the body.
53
How does aldosterone affect the kidneys?
It acts on the kidney to reabsorb sodium and to excrete potassium.
54
What are androgens and estrogens?
Sex hormones secreted in small amounts that influence secondary sex characteristics.
55
What mnemonic can help recall the main adrenal cortex hormones?
The 'three S's': sugar (cortisol), salt (aldosterone), and sex (androgens and estrogens).
56
What are the two types of catecholamine hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
57
What is the function of epinephrine?
Increases heart rate and blood pressure, dilates bronchial tubes, and releases glucose from glycogen.
58
What is norepinephrine's role?
Constricts blood vessels to raise blood pressure.
59
What are sympathomimetic agents?
Agents like epinephrine and norepinephrine that mimic the actions of the sympathetic nervous system.
60
Where is the pancreas located?
The pancreas is located near and partly behind the stomach at the level of the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
61
What are the specialized hormone-producing cells in the pancreas called?
The specialized hormone-producing cells in the pancreas are called the islets of Langerhans or islet cells.
62
What percentage of the pancreas consists of exocrine cells?
More than 98% of the pancreas consists of exocrine cells.
63
What do exocrine cells in the pancreas secrete?
Exocrine cells secrete digestive enzymes into the gastrointestinal tract.
64
What hormones do the islets of Langerhans produce?
The islets of Langerhans produce insulin and glucagon.
65
What role does insulin play in blood glucose regulation?
Insulin lowers blood sugar by helping it enter body cells and converting glucose to glycogen in the liver.
66
What does glucagon do when blood glucose levels fall too low?
Glucagon raises blood sugar by promoting the conversion of glycogen back to glucose in liver cells.
67
What is the endocrine function of the pancreas an example of?
The endocrine function of the pancreas is an example of homeostasis.
68
What is the pituitary gland also called?
The pituitary gland is also called the hypophysis.
69
Where is the pituitary gland located?
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain in a small pocket-like depression of the skull called the sella turcica.
70
What are the two distinct parts of the pituitary gland?
The two distinct parts of the pituitary gland are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).
71
What type of tissue composes the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is composed of glandular epithelial tissue.
72
What type of tissue composes the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is composed of nervous tissue.
73
What is the role of the hypothalamus in relation to the pituitary gland?
The hypothalamus controls secretions by the pituitary gland through signals transmitted to it.
74
What do special secretory neurons in the hypothalamus send to the anterior pituitary gland?
Special secretory neurons in the hypothalamus send releasing and inhibiting factors (hormones) via capillaries to the anterior pituitary gland.
75
What is the pituitary gland often referred to as?
The pituitary gland is often called the 'master gland' because it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands.
76
What is the major hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that promotes protein synthesis?
Growth hormone (GH), or somatotropin, promotes protein synthesis that results in the growth of bones, muscles, and other tissues.
77
What does growth hormone (GH) stimulate in the liver?
GH stimulates the liver to make insulin-like growth factor (IGF), which stimulates the growth of bones.
78
What are the effects of growth hormone (GH) on blood glucose levels?
GH increases blood glucose levels and is secreted during exercise, sleep, and hypoglycemia.
79
What does thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulate?
TSH stimulates the growth of the thyroid gland and secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
80
What is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?
ACTH stimulates the growth of the adrenal cortex and increases its secretion of steroid hormones, primarily cortisol.
81
What are gonadotropic hormones responsible for?
Gonadotropic hormones influence the growth and hormone secretion of the ovaries in females and the testes in males.
82
What is the role of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in females?
FSH stimulates the growth of eggs in the ovaries, the production of hormones, and ovulation.
83
What does luteinizing hormone (LH) do in males?
LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone.
84
What is the function of prolactin (PRL)?
Prolactin stimulates breast development during pregnancy and sustains milk production after birth.
85
What hormones are stored and released by the posterior pituitary gland?
The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.
86
What is the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
ADH stimulates the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules and increases blood pressure by constricting arterioles.
87
What is the role of Oxytocin (OT) during childbirth?
Oxytocin stimulates the uterus to contract and maintains labor during childbirth.
88
How does Oxytocin relate to suckling?
Oxytocin is secreted during suckling and causes the production of milk from the mammary glands.
89
What are the ovaries?
The ovaries are two small glands located in the lower abdominal region of the female.
90
What do the ovaries produce?
The ovaries produce the female gamete, the ovum, as well as hormones responsible for female sex characteristics and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
91
What are the main ovarian hormones?
The main ovarian hormones are estrogens (estradiol and estrone) and progesterone.
92
What is the function of estrogens?
Estrogens stimulate the development of ova (eggs) and the development of female secondary sex characteristics.
93
What is the role of progesterone?
Progesterone is responsible for the preparation and maintenance of the uterus in pregnancy.
94
What are the testes?
The testes are two small ovoid glands suspended from the inguinal region of the male by the spermatic cord and surrounded by the scrotal sac.
95
What do the testes produce?
The testes produce the male gametes spermatozoa, as well as the male hormone called testosterone.
96
What is testosterone?
Testosterone is an androgen (male steroid hormone) that stimulates development of sperm and secondary sex characteristics in the male.
97
What are secondary sex characteristics stimulated by testosterone?
Secondary sex characteristics include the deepening of voice and development of hair and pubic hair.
98
Thyroid
Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) - Increases metabolism in body cells
Calcitonin- Decreases blood calcium
99
Parathyroids
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - Increases blood calcium
100
Adrenal Cortex
Cortisol (glucocorticoid) - Increases blood sugar.
Aldosterone (mineralcorticoid) - Increases reabsorption of sodium
Androgens and Estrogens (sex hormones) - secondary sex characteristics
101
Medulla
Epinephrine - sympathomimetic
Norepinephrine- sympathomimetic
102
Pancreas
Islet cells
Insulin - Decreases blood sugar (converts glucose to glycogen)
Glucagon - Increases blood sugar (converts glycogen to glucose).
103
Pituitary - anterior lobe
Growth hormone (GH) - Increases bone and tissue growth.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Stimulates thyroid gland to produce T4 and T3.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol.
Gonadotropins :
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Oogenesis and spermatogenesis
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Promotes ovulation and testosterone secretion.
Prolactin (PRL) - Growth of breast tissue and milk secretion.
104
Pituitary- posterior lobe
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Reabsorption of water by kidney tubules (vasopressin).
Oxytocin- Stimulates contraction of uterus in childbirth.
105
Ovaries
Estrogens - Development of ova and female secondary sex characteristics.
Progesterone - Prepares and maintains the uterus in pregnancy.
106
Testes
Testosterone - Development of sperm and male secondary sex characteristics.
107
Adrenal Cortex
Outer section (cortex) of each adrenal gland; secretes cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones.
108
Adrenal Medulla
Inner section (medulla) of each adrenal gland; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.
109
Ovaries
Located in the lower abdomen of a female; responsible for egg production and estrogen and progesterone secretion.
110
Pancreas
Located behind the stomach. Islet (alpha and beta) cells (islets of Langerhans) secrete hormones from the pancreas. The pancreas also contains cells that are exocrine in function, secreting enzymes into the small intestine to aid digestion.
111
Parathyroid Glands
Four small glands on the posterior of the thyroid gland. Some people may have three or five parathyroid glands.
112
Pituitary Gland
Located at the base of the brain in the sella turcica; composed of an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). It weighs only ½ ounce and is a half-inch across.
113
Testes
Two glands enclosed in the scrotal sac of a male; responsible for sperm production and testosterone secretion.
114
Thyroid Gland
Located in the neck on either side of the trachea; secretes thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.
115
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Secreted by the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate and blood pressure
116
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; also called Adrenocorticotropin. Stimulates the adrenal cortex
117
Aldosterone
A hormone that increases reabsorption of water by the kidney.
118
Androgen
Male hormone secreted by the testes and to a lesser extent by the adrenal cortex; testosterone is an example.
119
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
120
Calcitonin
A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland; decreases blood calcium levels.
121
Cortisol
A hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex; increases blood sugar and has an anti-inflammatory effect.
122
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
A hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate and blood pressure and dilates airways.
123
Estradiol
A female hormone secreted by the ovaries.
124
Estrogen
A female hormone secreted by the ovaries and to a lesser extent by the adrenal cortex. Examples are estradiol and estrone.
125
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland that stimulates hormone secretion and egg production by the ovaries and sperm production by the testes.
126
Glucagon
A hormone secreted by alpha islet cells of the pancreas; increases blood sugar by conversion of glycogen to glucose.
127
Growth hormone (GH)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; stimulates growth of bones and soft tissues.
128
Insulin
A hormone secreted by beta islet cells of the pancreas; helps glucose to pass into cells and promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen.
129
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone secretion in males.
130
Norepinephrine
A hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate and blood pressure.
131
Oxytocin (OT)
A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland; stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth.
132
Parathormone (PTH)
A hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands; increases blood calcium.
133
Progesterone
A hormone secreted by the ovaries; prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
134
Prolactin (PRL)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; promotes milk secretion.
135
Somatotropin
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; growth hormone.
136
Testosterone
A male hormone secreted by the testes.
137
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; acts on the thyroid gland to promote its functioning.
138
Thyroxine (T4)
Secreted by the thyroid gland; also called tetraiodothyronine. T4 increases metabolism in cells.
139
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Secreted by the thyroid gland; T3 increases metabolism in cells.
## Footnote
HINT: The extra n in -thyronine (pronounced THI-ro-neen) avoids the combination of two vowels (o and i).
140
Vasopressin
Secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland; antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Vasopressin increases water reabsorption and raises blood pressure.
141
Catecholamines
Hormones derived from an amino acid and secreted by the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine is a catecholamine.
142
Corticosteroids
Hormones (steroids) produced by the adrenal cortex. Examples are cortisol (raises sugar levels), aldosterone (raises salt reabsorption by kidneys), and androgens and estrogens (sex hormones).
143
Electrolyte
Mineral salt found in the blood and tissues and necessary for proper functioning of cells; potassium, sodium, and calcium are electrolytes.
144
Glucocorticoid
Steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex; regulates glucose, fat, and protein metabolism. Cortisol raises blood sugar and is part of the stress response.
145
Homeostasis
Tendency of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment.
146
Hormone
Chemical, secreted by an endocrine gland, that travels through the blood to a distant organ or gland where it influences the structure or function of that organ or gland.
147
Hypothalamus
Region of the brain lying below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland. It secretes releasing factors and hormones that affect the pituitary gland.
148
Mineralocorticoid
Steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex to regulate mineral salts (electrolytes) and water balance in the body. Aldosterone is an example.
149
Receptor
Cellular or nuclear protein that binds to a hormone so that a response can be elicited.
150
Sella Turcica?
Cavity at the base of the skull; contains the pituitary gland.
151
Sex hormones
Steroids (androgens and estrogens) produced by the adrenal cortex to influence male and female sexual characteristics.
152
Steroid
Complex substance related to fats (derived from a sterol, such as cholesterol), and of which many hormones are made. Examples of steroids are estrogens, androgens, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. Ster/o means solid; -ol means oil.
153
Sympathomimetic
Pertaining to mimicking or copying the effect of the sympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline (epinephrine) is a sympathomimetic hormone (it raises blood pressure and heart rate and dilates airways).
154
Target tissue?
Cells of an organ that are affected or stimulated by specific hormones.
155
What is goiter?
Enlargement of the thyroid gland.
156
What causes endemic goiter?
Occurs in regions with a lack of iodine in the diet.
157
How does low iodine affect thyroid hormone levels?
Leads to low T3 and T4 levels, stimulating the hypothalamus and adenohypophysis to secrete releasing factors and TSH.
158
What is the effect of TSH in the absence of iodine?
Promotes thyroid gland enlargement, resulting in goiter.
159
How can goiter be prevented?
By increasing iodine supply in the diet, such as through iodized salt.
160
What is nodular or adenomatous goiter?
A type of goiter characterized by hyperplasia and the formation of nodules and adenomas.
161
What symptoms may patients with nodular goiter experience?
Symptoms may include hyperthyroidism, rapid pulse, tremors, nervousness, and excessive sweating.
162
What treatments are available for nodular goiter?
Thyroid-blocking drugs or radioactive iodine to suppress thyroid functioning.
163
What is hyperthyroidism?
Overactivity of the thyroid gland; also known as thyrotoxicosis.
164
What is the most common form of hyperthyroidism?
Graves disease, resulting from autoimmune processes.
165
What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
Increased heart rate, higher body temperature, hyperactivity, weight loss, and increased peristalsis.
166
What is exophthalmos?
Protrusion of the eyeballs due to swelling of tissue behind the eyeball.
167
How is Graves disease treated?
Management with antithyroid drugs and administration of radioactive iodine.
168
What is Tepezza used for?
It is a new drug that reduces pain and swelling associated with exophthalmos.
169
What is hypothyroidism?
Underactivity of the thyroid gland.
## Footnote
Conditions that can produce hypothyroidism include thyroidectomy, thyroiditis, endemic goiter, and destruction of the gland by irradiation.
170
What are common symptoms of hypothyroidism?
Symptoms include fatigue, muscular and mental sluggishness, weight gain, fluid retention, slow heart rate, low body temperature, and constipation.
171
What are two examples of hypothyroid disorders?
Myxedema and cretinism.
172
What is myxedema?
Advanced hypothyroidism in adulthood characterized by atrophy of the thyroid gland and minimal hormone production.
## Footnote
Symptoms include dry and puffy skin due to mucus-like material under the skin and increased blood lipids.
173
What is cretinism?
Extreme hypothyroidism during infancy and childhood leading to lack of normal physical and mental growth.
## Footnote
Affected individuals may appear as obese, short, and stocky children.
174
How is hypothyroidism treated?
Treatment consists of administration of thyroid hormone.
175
What is thyroid carcinoma?
Cancer of the thyroid gland.
176
What percentage of thyroid malignancies are papillary carcinomas?
More than one half of thyroid malignancies are slow-growing papillary carcinomas.
177
What percentage of thyroid malignancies are follicular carcinomas?
About one third are slow-growing follicular carcinomas.
178
What types of tumors are included in thyroid carcinoma?
Others include rapidly growing anaplastic (widely metastatic) tumors.
179
What do radioactive iodine scans distinguish?
Radioactive iodine scans distinguish hyperfunctioning areas from hypofunctioning areas.
180
What do 'hot' tumor areas indicate?
'Hot' tumor areas usually indicate hyperthyroidism and benign growth.
181
What do 'cold' nonfunctional nodules indicate?
'Cold,' nonfunctional nodules can be either benign or malignant.
182
What is required to make the diagnosis of thyroid carcinoma?
Ultimately, fine needle aspiration, surgical biopsy, or excision is required to make the diagnosis.
183
What is indicated for most thyroid carcinomas?
Total or subtotal thyroidectomy with lymph node removal is indicated for most thyroid carcinomas.
184
What is the purpose of postsurgical treatment with radioactive iodine?
Postsurgical treatment with radioactive iodine destroys remaining thyroid tissue.
185
What is the role of replacement doses of thyroid hormone after surgery?
Replacement doses of thyroid hormone will suppress TSH to cause regression of any residual tumor dependent on TSH.
186
What is hyperparathyroidism?
Excessive production of parathormone.
187
What occurs as a result of hyperparathyroidism?
Hypercalcemia occurs as calcium leaves the bones and enters the bloodstream.
188
What are the consequences of hypercalcemia?
It can produce damage to the kidneys and heart.
189
What happens to bones in hyperparathyroidism?
Bones become decalcified with generalized loss of bone density (osteoporosis) and susceptibility to fractures and formation of cysts.
190
What complications can arise from hypercalcemia?
Kidney stones can occur as a result of hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria.
191
What causes hyperparathyroidism?
The cause is parathyroid hyperplasia or a parathyroid tumor.
192
What is the treatment for hyperparathyroidism?
Treatment is resection of the overactive tissue.
193
What is an alternative treatment for patients who are not surgical candidates?
Medical therapy is another option.
194
What medication can decrease bone turnover and hypercalcemia?
Bisphosphonates, such as alendronate (Fosamax), decrease bone turnover and decrease hypercalcemia.
195
What is hyposecretion?
Deficient production of parathyroid hormone.
196
What is hypoparathyroidism?
A condition characterized by hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone, leading to hypocalcemia and muscle weakness.
197
What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?
Symptoms include muscle and nerve weakness, spasms of muscles, and a condition called tetany.
198
How can hypoparathyroidism be treated?
Administration of calcium plus large quantities of vitamin D can control calcium levels in the bloodstream.
199
What is adrenal virilism?
Excessive secretion of adrenal androgens.
200
What causes adrenal virilism?
Adrenal hyperplasia or adrenal adenomas or carcinomas can cause virilization in adult women.
201
What are the signs and symptoms of adrenal virilism?
Signs include amenorrhea, hirsutism, acne, and deepening of the voice.
202
What are the treatments for adrenal virilism?
Drug therapy to suppress androgen production and adrenalectomy are possible treatments.
203
What is Cushing syndrome?
A group of signs and symptoms produced by excess cortisol from the adrenal cortex.
204
What are the symptoms of Cushing syndrome?
Symptoms include obesity, moon-like fullness of the face, buffalo hump, diabetes, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, osteoporosis, virilization, and hypertension.
205
What causes Cushing syndrome?
The cause may be a tumor of the adrenal cortex or excess ACTH secretion (Cushing disease).
206
What is Addison disease?
Addison disease is characterized by hypofunctioning of the adrenal cortex.
207
What are the symptoms of Addison disease?
Symptoms include generalized malaise, weakness, muscle atrophy, and severe loss of fluids and electrolytes.
208
What happens when cortisol levels are low in Addison disease?
Low cortisol levels signal the pituitary to secrete more ACTH, leading to increased pigmentation of skin, scars, and breast nipples.
209
What is the believed cause of primary insufficiency in Addison disease?
Primary insufficiency is believed to be due to autoimmune adrenalitis.
210
What is the treatment for Addison disease?
Treatment consists of daily cortisone administration and intake of salts or administration of a synthetic form of aldosterone.
211
What is pheochromocytoma?
Pheochromocytoma is a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla.
212
What does the name pheochromocytoma derive from?
The name derives from the staining of its cells; 'phe/o' means dark or dusky and 'chrom/o' means color.
213
What do the tumor cells in pheochromocytoma produce?
The tumor cells produce excess epinephrine and norepinephrine.
214
What are the signs and symptoms of pheochromocytoma?
Signs and symptoms include hypertension, tachycardia, palpitations, severe headaches, sweating, flushing of the face, and muscle spasms.
215
What are possible treatments for pheochromocytoma?
Possible treatments include surgery to remove the tumor and administration of antihypertensive drugs.
216
217
What is hyperinsulinism?
Excess secretion of insulin causing hypoglycemia.
218
What causes hyperinsulinism?
An overdose of insulin.
219
What are common symptoms of hypoglycemia due to hyperinsulinism?
Fainting spells, convulsions, and loss of mental functioning.
220
Why is a minimal level of blood sugar necessary?
It is necessary for mental functioning.
221
What is diabetes mellitus (DM)?
Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterized by a lack of insulin secretion or resistance to insulin, affecting sugar, starch, and fat metabolism in cells.
222
What does 'mellitus' mean in diabetes mellitus?
'Mellitus' means sweet or sugary.
223
What are the two types of diabetes mellitus?
The two types of diabetes mellitus are Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes.
224
What is Type 1 diabetes?
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against normal pancreatic islet cells, leading to complete insulin deficiency.
225
When does Type 1 diabetes usually onset?
Type 1 diabetes usually onsets in early childhood but can occur in adulthood.
226
What are common characteristics of patients with Type 1 diabetes?
Patients with Type 1 diabetes are usually thin and require frequent insulin injections to maintain normal blood glucose levels.
227
How often do Type 1 diabetes patients monitor their blood glucose levels?
Patients usually test their blood glucose levels several times a day, often before each meal and at bedtime.
228
What is a continuous glucose monitor (CGM)?
A continuous glucose monitor (CGM) tracks glucose levels throughout the day and night and can communicate with an insulin pump to deliver insulin as needed.
229
What is Type 2 diabetes?
Type 2 diabetes is a separate disease from Type 1, often seen in older patients, but can also occur in adolescents, usually with a family history of the disease.
230
What is a common condition associated with Type 2 diabetes?
Obesity is very common among patients with Type 2 diabetes.
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What is the primary issue in Type 2 diabetes?
In Type 2 diabetes, there is a relative deficiency of insulin secretion and resistance by target tissues to insulin.
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What are common health issues associated with insulin resistance?
High blood pressure, high cholesterol, and central abdominal obesity are often seen in people with insulin resistance.
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What are the treatment options for Type 2 diabetes?
Treatment for Type 2 diabetes includes diet, weight reduction, exercise, and if necessary, insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents.
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What do oral hypoglycemic agents do?
Oral hypoglycemic agents stimulate the release of insulin from the pancreas and improve the body's sensitivity to insulin.
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What is acromegaly?
Acromegaly is the hypersecretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary after puberty, leading to enlargement of extremities.
## Footnote
It is characterized by abnormal growth of bones in the hands, feet, face, and jaw, producing a coarsened facial appearance.
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What causes acromegaly?
Acromegaly is caused by an excess of growth hormone produced by adenomas of the pituitary gland during adulthood.
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What hormone does excess growth hormone stimulate the liver to secrete?
Excess growth hormone stimulates the liver to secrete somatomedin C, or insulin-like growth factor (IGF).
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How can acromegaly be treated?
Acromegaly can be treated by irradiating or surgically removing the pituitary adenoma.
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What is gigantism?
Gigantism is the hypersecretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary before puberty, leading to abnormal overgrowth of body tissues.
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What causes gigantism?
Gigantism is caused by benign adenomas of the pituitary gland that occur before a child reaches puberty.
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Can the hormonal problem caused by gigantism be corrected?
Yes, the underlying hormonal problem caused by gigantism can be corrected by early diagnosis in childhood.
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What is dwarfism?
Dwarfism is a condition characterized by short stature due to various medical conditions.
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What is panhypopituitarism?
Panhypopituitarism is a deficiency of all pituitary hormones.
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What is hypopituitary dwarfism?
Hypopituitary dwarfism is caused by congenital hyposecretion of growth hormone, leading to short stature while maintaining normal mental function.
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How does hypopituitary dwarfism differ from achondroplastic dwarfism?
Patients with achondroplastic dwarfism have a genetic defect in cartilage formation that limits the growth of long bones, unlike those with hypopituitary dwarfism.
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What are potential etiologic factors for panhypopituitarism?
Tumors of the sella turcica and arterial aneurysms may cause a failure of the pituitary to secrete hormones.
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What is SIADH?
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH is characterized by excessive secretion of antidiuretic hormone.
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What are the effects of hypersecretion of ADH?
Hypersecretion of ADH produces excess water retention in the body.
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What is the treatment for SIADH?
Treatment consists of dietary water restriction.
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What are some possible causes of SIADH?
Tumor, drug reactions, and head injury are some of the possible causes.
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What is diabetes insipidus (DI)?
Diabetes insipidus is characterized by insufficient secretion of antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin).
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What happens due to the deficiency of antidiuretic hormone in DI?
The kidney tubules fail to hold back (reabsorb) needed water and salts.
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What are the clinical manifestations of diabetes insipidus?
Clinical manifestations include polyuria and polydipsia.
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How is diabetes insipidus treated?
Synthetic preparations of ADH are administered with nasal sprays or intramuscularly.
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What does 'insipidus' mean?
'Insipidus' means tasteless, reflecting the condition of dilute urine.
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What does 'mellitus' mean?
'Mellitus' means sweet or like honey, reflecting the sugar content of urine in diabetes mellitus.
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What is the origin of the term 'diabetes'?
The term diabetes comes from the Greek 'diabainein', meaning to pass through.
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What do diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus have in common?
Both are characterized by polyuria.
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What is fisting plasma glucose (FPG)?
Also known as fasting blood sugar test, it measures circulating glucose level in a patient who has fasted at least 8 hours.
## Footnote
A normal fasting result is 99 mg/dL or below; prediabetes fasting levels are 100 to 125 mg/dL, and diabetes is diagnosed with levels of 126 mg/dL and above.
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What tests can diagnose diabetes?
A casual nonfasting plasma glucose level of 200 mg/dL plus the presence of signs and symptoms such as increased urination, increased thirst, and unexplained weight loss can also diagnose diabetes.
## Footnote
An oral glucose tolerance test is used to diagnose prediabetes and gestational diabetes.
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What does the glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) test measure?
It measures the percentage of red blood cells with glucose attached and monitors long-term glucose control.
## Footnote
A high level indicates poor glucose control in diabetic patients.
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What do serum and urine tests measure?
They measure hormones, electrolytes, glucose, and other substances as indicators of endocrine function.
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What are some serum studies included in endocrine function tests?
Serum studies include assays for growth hormone, somatomedin C (insulin-like growth factor, or IGF-1), prolactin level, gonadotropin levels, parathyroid hormone, calcium, and cortisol.
## Footnote
A high reading on blood glucose testing by glucometer in a doctor's office may be the first indication of a diabetes diagnosis (levels may be as high as 750 mg/dL, whereas normal is about 100 mg/dL).
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What do urine studies include?
Urine studies include dipstick testing for glucose (Clinistix, Labstix) and ketones (Acetest, Ketostix) and measurement of 17-ketosteroids.
## Footnote
A urinary microalbumin assay may detect small quantities of albumin in urine as a marker or harbinger of diabetic nephropathy.
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What hormones are measured in endocrine function tests?
Measurement of T3, T4, and TSH in the bloodstream.
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What is exophthalmometry?
Measurement of eyeball protrusion (as in Graves disease) with an exophthalmometer.
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What is a computed tomography (CT) scan used for?
X-ray imaging of endocrine glands in cross section and other views to assess size and infiltration by tumor.
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What does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) do?
Magnetic waves produce images of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to locate abnormalities.
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What is a thyroid scan?
Scanner detects radioactivity and visualizes the thyroid gland.
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How is radioactivity administered in a thyroid scan?
Administration of radioactivity is either intravenous (with radioactive technetium) or oral (with radioactive iodine).
## Footnote
The latter is called RAIU (radioactive iodine uptake scan).
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What is assessed during a thyroid scan?
Thyroid function is assessed; nodules and tumors can be evaluated.
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What does an ultrasound examination do?
Sound waves show images of endocrine organs.
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What is the best method to evaluate thyroid structures?
Thyroid ultrasound is the best method to evaluate thyroid structures and abnormalities (nodules).
