Evaluations paper 1 Flashcards

Question

Dispositional- social influence- research support

Answer 1

Elms conducted interviews with participants from Milgram's original study and had them complete the F-scale, a measure of authoritarianism. The results showed that the 20 participants who had obeyed the authority figure and administered the maximum shock (450 volts) scored significantly higher on the F-scale compared to the 20 disobedient participants. This suggests that individuals who exhibit higher levels of authoritarianism, characterized by rigid adherence to authority and conventional values, may be more likely to obey orders, even when they conflict with personal moral standards. However, this correlation does not imply causation, and other factors, such as personality traits or situational influences, may also contribute to obedience. Furthermore, the F-scale itself has been criticized for its potential to over-simplify complex personality traits, limiting the broader applicability of the findings.

Answer 2

Albrecht conducted a study on a teen "Fresh Start" program aimed at helping pregnant adolescents resist smoking. The program lasted eight weeks and paired participants with a buddy to provide social support and accountability. The results showed that the support system, including the buddy pairing, was effective in helping the adolescents resist smoking. This approach highlights the importance of social support in behavior change, particularly for vulnerable populations like pregnant adolescents. The buddy system created a sense of responsibility and encouragement, which can help individuals overcome challenges and make healthier decisions. However, the long-term effectiveness of such programs remains unclear, and it would be important to examine whether the positive effects of the program persist beyond the initial eight weeks. Additionally, the success of the program may be influenced by individual differences, such as motivation levels and external factors like social environment or family support.

Answer 3

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Gamson conducted a study in which participants were asked to provide evidence to help an oil company run a smear campaign. The results showed higher levels of resistance compared to previous studies, with 29 out of 33 participants rebelling against the unethical request. One key factor contributing to this resistance was that the participants were allowed to discuss the task with others, which helped build a sense of solidarity and collective action. This highlights the role of social support and group dynamics in promoting resistance to authority and unethical behavior. The ability to share concerns and organize collectively likely strengthened the participants' resolve to disobey. Gamson's findings suggest that resistance to authority can be more common when individuals feel supported by others and have the opportunity to engage in collective decision-making. This stands in contrast to studies like Milgram’s, where individuals were isolated, making them more susceptible to obedience.

Answer 4

Holland replicated Milgram's study and found a significant difference in obedience based on participants' locus of control. In his study, 37% of participants with an internal locus of control (those who believe they are in control of their own actions) did not go all the way to the highest shock level, whereas only 23% of participants with an external locus of control (those who believe their actions are controlled by external forces) refused to continue. These findings suggest that individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to resist authority and disobey orders that they perceive as immoral. This supports the idea that people who feel personally responsible for their actions are less susceptible to blind obedience than those who attribute responsibility to external factors, such as authority figures. It also emphasizes the importance of individual differences in determining levels of obedience in experimental settings.

Answer 5

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Twenge conducted a review of American studies on locus of control over a 40-year period and found a trend where people had become more resistant to authority, but also more likely to have an external locus of control. This suggests that while individuals have become more willing to challenge authority, they simultaneously feel less in control of their own lives and more influenced by external factors. The findings present an interesting paradox: as societal values shift towards individualism and resistance to authority, people may also experience increased feelings of powerlessness or a lack of personal control. This could be influenced by factors like economic uncertainty, social changes, or cultural shifts that affect how people view their ability to control their own destiny. Twenge’s research highlights the complexity of the relationship between locus of control, social attitudes, and behavior, and suggests that changes in societal norms can shape how people respond to authority.

Answer 6

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Moscovici's research on minority influence emphasized the importance of consistency in the ability of a minority to influence the majority. He found that when a minority group consistently presents its viewpoint over time, they are more likely to persuade the majority to adopt their perspective. In his study, Moscovici demonstrated that when the minority expressed their opinion consistently, even if they were in the minority, they were more successful in changing the majority’s views than when they were inconsistent. Consistency signals confidence and conviction in one’s beliefs, which can challenge the majority’s views and lead to deeper processing of the information. However, Moscovici also highlighted that the minority must avoid being seen as rigid or dogmatic, as this can alienate others. The research underscores the power of consistent, committed minority viewpoints in shaping social change, but also suggests that moderation and strategic communication are key to influencing others effectively.

Answer 7

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Martin's research investigated how the source of a message (minority or majority) affects individuals' willingness to change their viewpoint. In the study, one group first heard a message from a minority viewpoint, while another group heard the same message supported by the majority. The results showed that people were less willing to change their viewpoint if they had been exposed to the minority view, compared to when they had heard the majority view. This suggests that, while consistent and committed minorities can influence opinion in some situations, the majority viewpoint is often more persuasive and leads to greater attitude change. The research highlights the power of majority influence and indicates that people may be more resistant to adopting minority viewpoints, especially when those viewpoints challenge the majority consensus. However, this also raises questions about how the strength of the minority's arguments and the context in which the message is presented might influence the degree of resistance or openness to change.

Answer 8

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: One limitation of Moscovici’s research is that it used artificial tasks, such as the color perception task where participants were asked to identify the color of slides. These tasks do not reflect real-life situations where minority influence is typically more complex and involved with personal stakes. The artificial nature of the task may have led participants to behave in ways they might not in real-world scenarios, where the consequences of persuasion and social influence are more significant. This limits the external validity of Moscovici’s findings, as the results may not fully generalize to situations where people are more personally invested or when the stakes are higher. While the research provides valuable insights into the mechanics of minority influence, its applicability to real-world social influence processes may be somewhat constrained by the simplicity of the tasks used.

Answer 9

Nolan's study fits the concept of normative influence because the messages aimed to leverage social norms to encourage behavior change. Normative influence occurs when individuals conform to the expectations of others in order to be accepted or liked by a group. In this case, the messages were designed to communicate that reducing energy consumption was a desirable behavior, likely based on the assumption that people are motivated to act in ways that align with social norms or the behaviors of others in their community. By framing the message around the idea of reducing energy use, the participants were subtly encouraged to conform to a norm of environmental responsibility. Even though the messages did not explicitly state that everyone else was already doing it, they were intended to evoke the desire to align with the group’s expectations and avoid standing out as someone who does not care about energy conservation. This type of influence is a key example of how individuals often change their behavior to fit what they perceive as socially acceptable or expected in their community, which is the essence of normative influence.

Answer 10

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Nemeth claims that social change is largely driven by the way minorities inspire divergent thinking. According to Nemeth, minority groups challenge the status quo, encouraging people to think differently and consider alternative perspectives. This process of divergent thinking, where individuals explore a variety of possible solutions or viewpoints, is valuable because it stimulates creativity and innovation. Minorities are able to prompt this kind of thinking because they introduce ideas that may initially be outside the mainstream, but which can ultimately lead to the development of new ideas and solutions. This highlights the importance of minorities not only in resisting conformity but also in pushing society toward progress by encouraging people to think beyond conventional limits. By stimulating new ways of thinking, minorities can play a crucial role in driving social change and advancing societal development.

Answer 11

Here’s an improved version of your evaluation point: Mackie presents evidence suggesting that majority influence can lead to deeper processing, particularly when individuals do not share the majority's views. According to Mackie, when people are exposed to views that are different from their own, they are more likely to engage in deeper cognitive processing to understand and evaluate those viewpoints. This challenges the idea that minority influence alone is responsible for driving social change through deeper processing. Instead, it suggests that when individuals are confronted with majority opinions that contradict their beliefs, they may be prompted to reconsider their own views more thoroughly. This raises doubts about the role of minority influence in social change, as it highlights that it is not only minorities that can stimulate critical thinking and the reevaluation of ideas—majorities can also provoke this kind of processing when their views are different from those of the individual.

Answer 12

Baddeley’s research provides strong support for the idea that short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) are distinct stores, as it demonstrates that STM primarily encodes acoustically while LTM relies more on semantic encoding. This clear difference between the two stores supports the Multi-Store Model of memory. Although later research has challenged the simplicity of the model—for example, suggesting that both STM and LTM may involve more complex and overlapping processes—Baddeley’s findings have largely stood the test of time and continue to be influential in our understanding of how memory is organised.

Answer 13

Baddeley’s research supports the idea that short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) are separate stores, as it shows STM tends to encode acoustically while LTM encodes semantically. This clear distinction supports the Multi-Store Model. However, a key limitation is that Baddeley used artificial word lists with no personal meaning, which reduces the study’s ecological validity. In real life, we often remember meaningful information, so his findings may not fully reflect how memory works in everyday situations. Despite this, the core idea that STM and LTM use different coding methods has been consistently supported, giving the research lasting influence.

Answer 14

Jacobs’ research into the capacity of short-term memory, using digit span tasks, is a key study supporting the idea that STM has a limited capacity. A strength of this research is that it has been replicated by later studies, and the findings have generally been confirmed. This replication adds to the reliability and validity of Jacobs’ conclusions. Despite being conducted a long time ago, the study used a well-controlled procedure and remains a valid way of measuring memory span, suggesting the results are still relevant today.

Answer 15

More recent research by Cowan (2001) suggests the actual capacity is closer to 4 ± 1 chunks. This challenges Miller’s conclusion and suggests that the STM capacity might be smaller than previously thought. Therefore, while early research was influential, later findings highlight the need for a more accurate understanding of STM capacity.

Answer 16

Peterson and Peterson’s study demonstrated that short-term memory has a very limited duration of around 18–30 seconds when rehearsal is prevented. However, a major limitation is that they used meaningless consonant trigrams (e.g., “XQF”), which lack personal relevance. This lowers the external validity of the study, as it doesn’t reflect how we typically use memory in everyday life, where information is usually more meaningful. Still, the study isn't completely irrelevant — it effectively shows how quickly information can fade from STM without rehearsal, especially for neutral or less memorable content. This supports the idea that rehearsal plays a key role in maintaining information in STM.

Answer 17

Bahrick et al.’s study provides strong support for the long duration of long-term memory (LTM), showing that participants could remember names and faces from their school yearbooks even after several decades. A major strength of this study is its high external validity. Unlike many memory experiments that use artificial tasks, Bahrick used real-life, meaningful memories, making the findings much more generalisable to everyday memory use. This increases the ecological validity of the study. However, one limitation is that the study lacked full control over extraneous variables, such as how often participants had rehearsed the information over the years. Still, the realistic nature of the task gives the study lasting value

Answer 18

Baddeley’s research supports the idea that short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) are separate stores, as proposed by the Multi-Store Model. He found that participants had more difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM tasks, whereas they struggled more with semantically similar words in LTM tasks. This suggests that STM mainly relies on acoustic coding, while LTM uses semantic coding. These differences in how information is processed and stored provide strong evidence that STM and LTM are distinct systems with separate functions.

Answer 19

artificial

Answer 20

Evidence from case studies also challenges the idea that short-term memory (STM) is a single, unitary store. For example, Shallice and Warrington studied a patient known as KF, who had suffered brain damage. KF had poor STM for verbal information but could recall visual information relatively well, suggesting that there are separate STM stores for different types of information (e.g., auditory and visual). This contradicts the Multi-Store Model’s assumption that STM is a single system and supports more complex models of memory, such as the Working Memory Model, which proposes multiple components within STM.

Answer 21

A limitation of the Multi-Store Model is its emphasis on prolonged rehearsal as the main way information transfers from short-term memory (STM) to long-term memory (LTM). According to the model, the more you rehearse something, the more likely it is to be stored in LTM. However, later research by Craik and Tulving (1975) found that elaborative rehearsal — where information is processed more deeply, such as by thinking about its meaning — is more effective for long-term storage than simply repeating it. This suggests that the MSM oversimplifies how information moves into LTM and doesn't account for the quality of rehearsal, reducing its explanatory power.

Answer 22

Clive Wearing’s case study provides strong support for the idea that long-term memory (LTM) is made up of different types, rather than being a single store as suggested by the Multi-Store Model. After suffering brain damage from a viral infection, Clive lost most of his episodic memory (e.g., he couldn’t recall personal events or remember meeting people moments earlier), but his procedural memory remained intact — he could still play the piano and conduct music. This shows a clear distinction between different types of LTM, such as episodic and procedural memory, supporting models like Tulving’s which propose multiple LTM stores. This challenges the MSM, which treats LTM as one unitary store.

Answer 23

One limitation of case studies like Clive Wearing’s is that we cannot know how his brain functioned before the brain damage occurred. This makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the structure of memory from case studies alone, as the brain damage may have affected other aspects of cognition that we aren't aware of. While Clive's case suggests a distinction between types of long-term memory (e.g., procedural vs. episodic), it’s possible that his memory function before the brain injury may have been different from what we assume. This reduces the reliability of case study evidence, as it’s difficult to generalize from one individual’s brain injury.

Answer 24

Another limitation of the Multi-Store Model and other memory theories is the conflicting neuroimaging evidence regarding the brain regions involved in long-term memory (LTM). For example, Buckner and Peterson (1996) used neuroimaging techniques to show that different areas of the brain are activated depending on the type of LTM being used — such as the hippocampus for episodic memory and the prefrontal cortex for semantic memory. This challenges the idea of LTM being a single, unitary store, as proposed by the Multi-Store Model. The conflicting findings in neuroimaging research suggest that memory may be more complex and distributed across different brain regions than models like the MSM imply. These differences in brain activity further support the need for models that account for the diversity of memory processes.

Answer 25

Belleville et al. (2006) investigated how cognitive training could help improve episodic memory in older adults, particularly those with mild cognitive impairments. Their research found that participants who underwent training showed significant improvements in episodic memory performance compared to a control group. This suggests that episodic memory is not necessarily fixed and can be enhanced through targeted intervention. However, a limitation of this research is that it primarily focuses on specific populations, such as older adults with cognitive decline, so it may not be fully generalizable to younger, healthy individuals. Still, the findings offer hope for interventions aimed at improving memory, particularly in those at risk for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.

Answer 26

The case study of KF provides strong support for the Working Memory Model. After suffering brain damage, KF had poor short-term memory for verbal information but could still recall visual information relatively well. This suggests that short-term memory is not a single unitary store, as proposed by the Multi-Store Model, but instead consists of separate components for different types of information — such as the phonological loop for verbal material and the visuospatial sketchpad for visual tasks. KF's case supports the WMM’s idea of multiple specialised systems within working memory. However, because KF was a unique case, it is difficult to generalise the findings, and there may have been other cognitive impairments affecting his performance.

Answer 27

A key strength of the Working Memory Model is that it is supported by research into dual-task performance. Baddeley (1975) found that participants had more difficulty performing two tasks at the same time when both tasks used the same component of working memory (e.g. two verbal tasks using the phonological loop), compared to when the tasks used different components (e.g. one verbal, one visual). This supports the idea that working memory is made up of multiple components, such as the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, and that these have limited capacity. These findings provide strong experimental support for the WMM and challenge the Multi-Store Model, which assumes STM is a single store with no separate systems.

Answer 28

A major limitation of the Working Memory Model is the lack of clarity surrounding the central executive. Although it is described as the most important component, responsible for directing attention and coordinating the other subsystems, it is not well understood. Critics argue that the central executive is too vague and underdeveloped, almost acting as a “homunculus” — a little person in the brain controlling everything — which doesn't explain how it actually works. For example, Baddeley himself later admitted that the central executive is difficult to study experimentally and may consist of several separate components. This lack of detail weakens the explanatory power of the model, as it cannot fully account for all aspects of attention and control in working memory.

Answer 29

A strength of interference theory is that it has real-world application, as shown by Baddeley and Hitch’s (1977) study on rugby players. They found that players were more likely to forget the names of teams they had played recently if they had played many matches in between — even if the matches had been spread out over time. This supports the idea that forgetting is more to do with interference from similar memories (retroactive interference) than simply the passage of time. It shows that interference theory can explain forgetting in everyday settings, such as sports or studying, giving the theory strong ecological validity.

Answer 30

A limitation of interference theory is that the effects of interference can be reduced or even eliminated when cues are provided. Tulving and Psotka (1971) demonstrated this in their study where participants learned multiple word lists. When they were later given category cues (e.g., “types of fruit”), recall of earlier lists significantly improved. This suggests that the information was not lost due to interference but was simply inaccessible without the right retrieval cues. Therefore, interference theory may not fully explain forgetting, as it ignores the role of retrieval failure and cue-dependent forgetting. This limits the theory’s completeness in explaining how memory works in real-life situations.

Answer 31

Another limitation of interference theory is that forgetting does not always occur when new information is introduced — in fact, sometimes it can improve memory. Coenen and Luijtelaar (1997) found evidence for retrograde facilitation: participants who were given a list of words and then took a sedative (diazepam) recalled more words than a control group who stayed awake. The explanation is that the drug prevented new information from entering memory and interfering with what had just been learned. This goes against the interference theory, which assumes new learning should always disrupt earlier memories. Instead, it suggests that interference effects can be reduced under certain conditions, challenging the idea that interference is the main cause of forgetting.

Answer 32

A strength of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting is that it has real-world application, particularly in improving recall through the use of cues. Baddeley and Godden (1975) conducted a well-known study where deep-sea divers learned and recalled word lists either underwater or on land. They found that recall was significantly better when learning and recall took place in the same context. This supports the idea of context-dependent forgetting and shows that environmental cues can trigger memory retrieval. These findings have useful applications in education and everyday memory — for example, students may benefit from revising in environments similar to the exam setting, helping them recall information more effectively.

Answer 33

Retrieval failure is strongly supported by research such as that by Godden and Baddeley (1975) and Carter and Cassaday (1998). Godden and Baddeley showed that deep-sea divers recalled more words when learning and recall took place in the same environment (land or underwater), demonstrating context-dependent forgetting. Similarly, Carter and Cassaday found that participants who learned and recalled information under the influence of antihistamines performed better than those whose internal states (drugged vs. non-drugged) mismatched. This demonstrates state-dependent forgetting, where recall is worse if a person’s internal state differs between learning and retrieval. Together, these studies provide strong experimental support for the idea that forgetting often occurs when relevant cues are absent — a key feature of retrieval failure theory.

Answer 34

A limitation of retrieval failure theory is that context effects appear to be much stronger in recall tasks than in recognition tasks. For example, in a follow-up study, Godden and Baddeley found that when participants were asked to recognise words (rather than recall them), the context in which they learned the words had no significant effect on performance. This suggests that retrieval failure due to lack of context cues is mainly relevant when people have to generate information themselves (recall), but not when the information is already present and only needs to be identified (recognition). This limits the real-world application of the theory, as much of what we remember day to day involves recognition rather than free recall.

Answer 35

A major strength of the theory that misleading information affects eyewitness testimony is support from research by Loftus and Palmer (1974). In their study, participants watched a video of a car crash and were later asked how fast the cars were going when they "hit," "bumped," or "smashed" into each other. The verb used in the question influenced the participants’ speed estimates — those who heard "smashed" gave higher speed estimates than those who heard "hit." In a follow-up study, participants who heard "smashed" were also more likely to report seeing broken glass, even though there was none. This shows that misleading questions can alter a witness’s memory, supporting the idea that post-event information can distort recall and reduce the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 36

However, a limitation of Loftus and Palmer's study is that it used artificial laboratory conditions, which may not reflect real-world situations where eyewitnesses experience much more stressful and complex environments. This lowers the ecological validity of the findings, making it unclear how these results apply to real-life eyewitness testimony.

Answer 37

Sunderland and Hayne (2003) conducted a study supporting the concept of substitution in eyewitness memory, which suggests that misleading information can replace or "substitute" original details in a witness’s memory. In their study, children were shown a video of an event, and later asked misleading questions about it. When asked about specific details that were inconsistent with the video, the children’s memories were altered, and they incorporated the misleading information into their recall. This supports Loftus’s idea of substitution — that the introduction of misleading information can change the way a person recalls an event. The findings demonstrate that even children’s memories can be influenced by misleading post-event information, highlighting the powerful effect of misleading questions on eyewitness testimony

Answer 38

Skagerberg and Wright (2008) investigated memory conformity by examining how people’s memories can be influenced by other witnesses' accounts of an event. In their study, participants watched a video of a simulated crime and were later exposed to misleading information, either from other participants or from an interviewer. The researchers found that participants were more likely to conform to the incorrect information provided by others, even when it conflicted with what they originally saw. This supports the concept of memory conformity — the idea that people can alter their memories based on information from others, especially in social situations where they may feel pressure to agree with others' perceptions. The findings demonstrate how social influences can distort eyewitness memory and contribute to the inaccuracy of testimony.

Answer 39

Pickel (1998) challenged the view that anxiety is the primary factor affecting eyewitness memory. In his study, participants watched a video of a crime in a setting where a man held either a gun, a wallet, or a hand tool. The study found that participants’ accuracy in identifying the perpetrator was significantly lower when the weapon was unusual (i.e., the gun) compared to when the object was more commonplace (e.g., a wallet or a tool). This suggests that the unusualness of an event, such as the presence of a weapon, is more likely to impair memory than anxiety. Pickel concluded that unusual stimuli may draw attention away from other details of the event, reducing the accuracy of eyewitness recall. This challenges the traditional view that high levels of anxiety, such as those experienced during a crime, are the primary cause of memory impairment.

Answer 40

Valentine and Mesout (2009) conducted a field study in a real-world setting — the London Dungeon — to investigate how anxiety affects eyewitness memory. Participants were exposed to a frightening encounter with an actor dressed as a scary figure while they were in the dungeon. After the encounter, the researchers tested participants’ ability to recall details about the actor. They found that those who reported experiencing higher levels of anxiety during the encounter were less accurate in identifying the actor and recalling specific details about the event. This supports the idea that anxiety can impair memory accuracy, particularly in highly stressful situations. The study is valuable because it used a real-world setting, increasing ecological validity, and highlights the impact of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.

Answer 41

Christianson and Hubinette (1993) conducted a study on eyewitness memory by examining people who had witnessed real-life bank robberies. They found that witnesses who were directly involved in the robbery (e.g., employees or close bystanders) showed better recall of the event compared to those who were more distanced (e.g., customers). Interestingly, the witnesses who were more anxious due to their direct involvement had more accurate memories of the robbery. This contradicts the view that anxiety always impairs memory; instead, it suggests that anxiety might enhance memory accuracy when the event is highly emotional or significant. The study highlights that not all anxiety is detrimental to memory — in fact, heightened anxiety in emotionally charged situations may aid in the encoding of details, making memories more vivid and easier to recall.

Answer 42

Köhkén (1999) conducted a meta-analysis to assess the effectiveness of the Cognitive Interview (CI) in improving the accuracy of eyewitness memory. The meta-analysis, which included studies from various settings and contexts, found that the Cognitive Interview led to a significant increase in the amount of correct information recalled by witnesses compared to standard police interviewing techniques. However, Köhkén also highlighted that while the CI increased recall accuracy, it also resulted in a higher amount of incorrect information being recalled, particularly in cases where the witness was highly suggestible. This suggests that although the CI is an effective tool for increasing the quantity of information retrieved, its use must be carefully controlled to minimize the risk of memory contamination.

Answer 43

Milne and Bull (2002) investigated the relative effectiveness of different components of the Cognitive Interview (CI). They found that while all components of the CI — such as context reinstatement, reporting everything, and changing the perspective — were beneficial, the combination of context reinstatement and reporting everything was particularly effective in improving recall. Their research suggests that not all aspects of the Cognitive Interview are equally important, and the context reinstatement technique, in particular, enhances memory retrieval by encouraging witnesses to mentally recreate the environment of the event. This finding has practical implications, as it shows that police can potentially use a streamlined version of the CI, focusing on the most effective elements, to maximize the accuracy of eyewitness testimony while saving time.

Answer 44

A limitation of the Cognitive Interview (CI), as highlighted by Milne and Bull (2002), is that it can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. The technique requires more time than standard interviewing methods due to its structured nature, such as asking witnesses to mentally recreate the environment of the event (context reinstatement) and encouraging them to report every detail. In real-world settings, where police may have limited time and resources, this can be a significant drawback. While the CI is shown to improve recall accuracy, its time demands may make it impractical for use in every interview, particularly in high-pressure situations with multiple witnesses. This limits the broad applicability of the CI in everyday police work.

Answer 45

Statistical infrequency is useful because it's an objective way to identify abnormal behaviour. It relies on real data, like IQ scores or mental health assessments, so it's not based on personal opinions. This makes it especially helpful in clinical settings — for example, someone with an IQ below 70 can be identified as having a possible intellectual disability and get the support they need. It's also quick and clear to use because it relies on numbers and graphs. However, it’s important to remember that just because something is rare doesn’t always mean it’s bad — like being a genius!

Answer 46

A key weakness of statistical infrequency is that it assumes all rare behaviours are abnormal, but this isn’t always true. For example, having a very high IQ is statistically infrequent, but it’s usually seen as a positive trait, not a problem. The same goes for rare talents like being a musical prodigy or an Olympic-level athlete — these are uncommon but not signs of mental illness. This shows that just because something is unusual doesn’t mean it’s undesirable or needs treatment, so statistical infrequency can sometimes label healthy individuals as “abnormal” unfairly.

Answer 47

A major issue with using deviation from social norms to define abnormality is that norms can change over time and vary between cultures. For example, being gay was once seen as abnormal and even classed as a mental disorder in many societies, but now it’s widely accepted and no longer seen as “deviant” in most places. This shows how social norms are not fixed — they evolve as society changes. Because of this, what is seen as abnormal in one time period or culture might be completely normal in another, making this definition of abnormality inconsistent and culturally biased.

Answer 48

Deviation from social norms is used in real life to help identify when someone’s behaviour may be abnormal because it goes against what society considers acceptable or expected. Real-world example: A person with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) may show behaviour like aggression, dishonesty, or a lack of empathy. These behaviours break social rules about how people should treat others. Because these behaviours go against social norms, this definition helps professionals recognise and diagnose conditions like ASPD. Why this matters: It helps society maintain order and safety, and gives mental health professionals a way to spot when behaviour is harmful or inappropriate — especially when it affects others. Would you like this in paragraph form for a 6-marker or something shorter to memorise? You said: deviation from social norms, withchanging norms ChatGPT said: Great! Here's an evaluation paragraph on deviation from social norms that focuses on how social norms can change over time and across cultures: A major issue with using deviation from social norms to define abnormality is that norms can change over time and vary between cultures. For example, being gay was once seen as abnormal and even classed as a mental disorder in many societies, but now it’s widely accepted and no longer seen as “deviant” in most places. This shows how social norms are not fixed — they evolve as society changes. Because of this, what is seen as abnormal in one time period or culture might be completely normal in another, making this definition of abnormality inconsistent and culturally biased.

Answer 49

One strength of the failure to function adequately definition is that it provides a clear and practical threshold for when someone might need support. If a person can’t cope with everyday life — like holding a job, maintaining relationships, or getting out of bed — this suggests they may need help. This is useful because it focuses on how the person is actually living, not just whether their behaviour is unusual. Considering that around 1 in 4 people experience mental health issues each year, having a clear way to spot when someone is struggling makes this a helpful and realistic approach in today’s society.

Answer 50

One limitation of CBT is that relapse rates can be high, suggesting it may not always lead to long-term recovery. Shehzad et al. (2023) followed 439 clients over 12 months after CBT and found that 42% had relapsed within 6 months, and 53% relapsed within a year. This shows that although CBT can be effective in the short term, many people struggle to maintain their improvements over time. It suggests that CBT might need to be combined with ongoing support or booster sessions to prevent relapse.

Answer 51

A key real-world application of Ellis’s ABC model is Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), which is a form of CBT designed to help people overcome irrational beliefs. In REBT, therapists help clients identify the irrational beliefs (B) that follow negative events (A), and then challenge and replace them with more balanced, rational beliefs — changing the emotional and behavioural Consequences (C). For example, if someone believes “I must be perfect or I’m worthless,” REBT helps them dispute this belief and develop healthier thinking. This makes the ABC model not just a theory, but a practical tool for treating conditions like depression and anxiety.

Answer 52

Beck’s cognitive theory has important real-world applications in the screening and diagnosis of depression. His idea that negative thinking patterns — like the negative triad (negative views about the self, the world, and the future) — play a central role in depression has led to the development of tools like the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). This questionnaire is widely used by doctors and psychologists to assess the severity of depressive symptoms and identify those at risk. By highlighting faulty thinking early, it allows professionals to intervene sooner and provide appropriate treatment, making Beck’s theory highly useful in everyday mental health care.

Answer 53

A strength of the neural explanation of OCD is that it has led to effective treatments, particularly through the use of antidepressants. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase levels of serotonin in the brain, have been shown to significantly reduce symptoms in many OCD patients. This supports the idea that abnormal serotonin levels play a role in the disorder. The fact that SSRIs often improve OCD symptoms provides real-world support for the neural explanation and shows how understanding brain chemistry can lead to practical and successful treatments.

Answer 54

A key strength of Beck’s cognitive theory is that there is strong research support for the idea of cognitive vulnerability. Clark and Beck found that negative thinking patterns — such as low self-esteem, pessimism, and negative views of the world — are not only common in people with depression but often appear before the onset of the disorder. Similarly, Cohen et al. studied 473 adolescents and found that those with cognitive vulnerabilities were more likely to develop depression later on, showing that these thinking styles can act as a risk factor. This supports Beck’s idea that negative schemas don’t just happen because of depression — they may help cause it.

Answer 55

One limitation of CBT is that it may not be effective for everyone, particularly those with severe depression or learning disabilities. People with very severe depression may struggle with motivation, concentration, or even attending sessions, making it hard for CBT to work effectively without first using medication to stabilise their mood. Additionally, CBT requires a certain level of cognitive ability to engage with the talking therapy and challenge thoughts, which can be difficult for individuals with learning disabilities. This means CBT might not be suitable as a one-size-fits-all treatment, and other approaches may be needed for these groups.

Answer 56

A limitation of Ellis’s ABC model is that it may not explain all types of depression equally well. His theory focuses on irrational beliefs triggered by negative life events, which works well for reactive depression — depression caused by something like a breakup or job loss. However, it struggles to explain endogenous depression, which occurs without any obvious external trigger and is often more biological in nature. This means Ellis’s model may be too narrow, as it doesn’t fully account for cases where depression isn’t linked to an activating event, limiting its usefulness for all individuals.

Answer 57

A major strength of CBT is that it has been shown to be effective in treating depression, especially when combined with medication. March et al. studied 327 adolescents with depression and found that 81% of those treated with CBT and antidepressants together improved, compared to 81% with antidepressants alone and 71% with CBT alone. This shows that CBT can be just as effective as medication on its own and even more effective when used together. It supports the idea that CBT is a valuable treatment option, especially as it also helps people develop long-term coping strategies, not just manage symptoms.

Answer 58

A key real-world application of the behavioural approach to phobias is in the development of effective treatments, such as systematic desensitisation and flooding. These therapies are based on the idea that phobias are learned through classical conditioning (association) and maintained through operant conditioning (avoidance). For example, if someone has a phobia of dogs due to a traumatic encounter, behavioural therapy can help them unlearn this fear by gradually exposing them to dogs in a safe way (systematic desensitisation) or through more intense exposure (flooding). These treatments have been shown to be highly effective, showing how the behavioural explanation has real practical value in reducing phobic symptoms and improving lives.

Answer 59

One strength of Jahoda’s definition of ideal mental health is that it is highly comprehensive. It covers a wide range of criteria — such as self-actualisation, resistance to stress, autonomy, and a positive view of the self — giving a detailed picture of what good mental health looks like. This is useful because it doesn’t just focus on the absence of mental illness, but also promotes personal growth and wellbeing. By including both emotional and practical aspects of life, Jahoda’s approach provides a broad and positive framework for understanding mental health.

Answer 60

A limitation of Jahoda’s definition of ideal mental health is that it may be culturally biased and not universally applicable. Many of the criteria, such as autonomy and self-actualisation, are based on individualistic values common in Western cultures, where personal achievement and independence are highly valued. In contrast, in collectivist cultures, where community and family are prioritized, these characteristics might not be seen as essential to mental health. This means that Jahoda’s definition may not apply to people from different cultural backgrounds, making it less useful as a universal standard for mental health.

Answer 61

One strength of drug therapies for OCD is that they are cost-effective and accessible. Medications like SSRIs (e.g., fluoxetine) are relatively cheap for health services to provide compared to psychological therapies like CBT, which require trained professionals and multiple sessions. Drug treatments can also be easily prescribed by GPs, making them more accessible to a wider range of people, especially when resources are limited. This means that drug therapy is a practical solution for managing OCD symptoms on a large scale, particularly in public healthcare systems like the NHS.

Answer 62

A key limitation of drug therapy for OCD is the potential for unpleasant side effects. While SSRIs like fluoxetine can be effective in reducing symptoms, they can also cause side effects such as nausea, headaches, sleep disturbances, and sexual dysfunction. For some individuals, these side effects can be so troublesome that they stop taking the medication, which reduces its overall effectiveness. In more severe cases, alternatives like tricyclic antidepressants may be used, but these often have even more serious side effects, such as increased heart rate or drowsiness. This shows that although drug therapy can be helpful, it is not without significant drawbacks that may affect adherence and long-term success.

Answer 63

There is strong evidence supporting the effectiveness of drug therapy for OCD, particularly from research by Soomro et al. In a meta-analysis of studies comparing SSRIs to placebos, Soomro et al. (2008) found that SSRIs were significantly more effective than placebos at reducing OCD symptoms in the short term. Patients typically showed improved functioning and reduced anxiety, especially when the drugs were combined with CBT. This supports the idea that SSRIs are a reliable treatment option for many individuals with OCD, helping to reduce symptoms and improve quality of life. Would you like to link this to relapse rates or combine it with another study for a more detailed evaluation?

Answer 64

There is strong research support for the genetic explanation of OCD, particularly from family and twin studies. For example, Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed previous twin and family studies and found that people with a first-degree relative who has OCD are about twice as likely to develop the disorder compared to those without a family history. This suggests that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of OCD. These findings support the idea that OCD has a biological basis and that inherited vulnerability may be one of the key risk factors.

Answer 65

A limitation of the neural explanation of OCD is that it may be complicated by comorbidity with other disorders. Many people with OCD also suffer from other mental health conditions, such as depression, which also involve disruptions in serotonin levels and other brain functions. This overlap makes it difficult to determine whether the abnormal brain activity seen in OCD patients is actually specific to OCD, or whether it's related to the co-occurring disorder. As a result, the neural explanation may lack specificity, limiting its usefulness in fully explaining the unique biological causes of OCD.

Answer 66

A major limitation of flooding is that it can be highly traumatic for patients. The therapy involves immediate and intense exposure to the feared object or situation without any gradual build-up, which can cause extreme anxiety and distress. While flooding can be effective if completed, some patients may refuse to start or drop out mid-treatment due to the overwhelming nature of the experience. This reduces the overall effectiveness and appropriateness of flooding, especially for vulnerable individuals or those with severe phobias.

Answer 67

One strength of flooding is that it is a highly cost-effective treatment for phobias. Unlike therapies that require multiple gradual sessions, flooding often works in just one or two long sessions, making it cheaper and less time-consuming for both therapists and patients. This efficiency is particularly beneficial in healthcare systems with limited resources, such as the NHS. When successful, flooding can lead to rapid improvements in symptoms, which means people can return to normal life more quickly — adding to its value as an economical treatment option.

Answer 68

There is strong evidence supporting the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation in treating phobias. For example, Gilroy et al. (2003) studied patients with a spider phobia and found that those who received systematic desensitisation showed significantly less fear than a control group, both 3 months and 33 months after treatment. This long-term reduction in symptoms shows that SD not only works but also has lasting effects, making it a reliable and effective treatment for specific phobias.

Answer 69

The case of Little Albert provides key support for the behavioural explanation of phobias, particularly the role of trauma and classical conditioning. In this famous study by Watson and Rayner (1920), a baby named Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, frightening noise. Over time, Albert showed fear not just to the rat, but also to other white, fluffy objects, demonstrating generalisation of the phobia. This supports the idea that phobias can be learned through traumatic experiences — in this case, associating a neutral object with fear — which is central to the two-process model of phobias (classical and operant conditioning).

Answer 70

One limitation of the behaviourist explanation of phobias is that it fails to account for the cognitive aspects of the disorder. While the two-process model focuses on how phobias are learned through classical conditioning (e.g., a traumatic event) and maintained through operant conditioning (e.g., avoiding the feared object), it does not explain why some individuals develop phobias while others do not, despite similar experiences. Cognitive factors, such as irrational thinking or misinterpretations of harmless situations as dangerous, play a crucial role in the development and persistence of phobias. This means that the behaviourist approach is too simplistic and neglects the internal cognitive processes that contribute to the phobic response.

Answer 71

A strength of studying caregiver-infant interactions through filmed observations is that it allows for highly detailed and controlled analysis. Filming these interactions enables researchers to review the behavior repeatedly, ensuring that subtle or fleeting moments, like a baby's gaze or a caregiver's touch, are not overlooked. This can improve the reliability of findings, as multiple researchers can analyze the same footage, reducing bias or subjectivity. Additionally, filming allows for the creation of large, standardized datasets that can be compared across different studies. However, a limitation is that the artificial nature of filming may cause both the caregiver and infant to behave differently than they would in a natural setting, possibly limiting the ecological validity of the research

Answer 72

Another challenge in studying caregiver-infant interactions is the lack of coordination in younger babies, which makes it difficult to interpret their behavior accurately. Newborns and young infants have limited motor skills, which means they cannot control their movements as precisely as older babies. This lack of coordination can make it hard to determine if a baby is purposefully engaging with a caregiver or simply reacting to random movements. For example, a baby may make an arm movement that could be mistaken for an attempt to reach out or communicate, but it might simply be an involuntary reflex. This limits the accuracy of conclusions drawn about the intentionality behind the baby's actions and may underestimate the infant's early communicative abilities.

Answer 73

A major limitation of research on early attachment and its effects on later life is the presence of confounding variables. Studies often find a link between early attachment styles and later outcomes such as relationships or mental health, but these findings are difficult to interpret due to the influence of other factors, such as family environment, socioeconomic status, and genetic influences. For example, a child with insecure attachment may also experience other stressors, like a chaotic home environment, which could contribute to later difficulties in relationships. This makes it hard to determine whether early attachment alone is the cause of later outcomes or if other factors are at play. Therefore, the causal relationship between early attachment and later life outcomes may not be as clear-cut as some studies suggest.

Answer 74

A significant limitation of many studies on early attachment and its impact on later life is that they are not longitudinal and rely on retrospective reports from participants about their childhood experiences. This means that researchers often ask adults to recall their early attachment experiences, which can be influenced by memory biases or current emotional states. People may reconstruct or misremember their early attachment experiences, making the data less reliable. Additionally, without longitudinal studies, it is difficult to track changes in attachment over time and establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship between early attachment and later outcomes. The reliance on retrospective accounts also means that findings may not fully reflect the real impact of early attachment on later development.

Answer 75

Research by Fearon and Roisman (2017) provides strong support for the idea that early attachment has a long-term impact on later relationships. Their longitudinal study followed children from infancy into their 20s and found that secure attachment in infancy was associated with more positive interpersonal relationships and better emotional regulation in adulthood. This research strengthens the argument that early attachment experiences can shape an individual’s social and emotional development over time. However, one limitation of this study is that although it controls for some confounding variables, other factors—such as family environment, socioeconomic status, and genetics—could still influence later outcomes. Additionally, while the longitudinal design provides stronger evidence of causality, it is still challenging to completely rule out the influence of other life events or experiences.

Answer 76

A limitation of the Romanian orphan studies, such as those conducted by Rutter et al., is the lack of long-term adult data. While these studies have provided valuable insights into the effects of early institutional care on cognitive, emotional, and social development in childhood, they do not provide sufficient information on the long-term effects of these experiences into adulthood. Most of the studies have focused on the children's development up to adolescence, but the lack of follow-up into adulthood means it is difficult to assess the full impact of early deprivation on later adult functioning, relationships, or mental health. This limits our understanding of whether the children who were adopted later can fully recover from early trauma or if they experience long-term difficulties in adulthood. Furthermore, the studies tend to focus on quantitative measures (such as IQ and attachment behaviors) rather than more qualitative aspects, like emotional well-being in adulthood.

Answer 77

A significant limitation of research on institutionalisation, such as the studies on Romanian orphans, is the presence of confounding variables. While these studies provide valuable insights into the effects of institutional care, the children in these studies often experienced multiple forms of deprivation, such as neglect, lack of stimulation, and poor physical care, which may be difficult to separate. For example, the children may have experienced trauma before being placed in institutions, such as abandonment or abuse, which could contribute to developmental delays or emotional difficulties. This makes it difficult to isolate the effects of institutionalisation itself from other factors. Furthermore, children who were placed in institutions may have been from disadvantaged backgrounds to begin with, meaning that the observed negative outcomes could be partly due to pre-existing conditions rather than solely the effects of institutionalisation.

Answer 78

One criticism of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis is the flawed evidence presented in his study of the 44 thieves. In this study, Bowlby suggested that early maternal deprivation led to emotional and behavioral problems, such as delinquency. He found that a higher proportion of the thieves had experienced early separation from their mothers compared to a control group. However, a major flaw in this study is the lack of control over other variables. The 44 thieves had already engaged in criminal behavior, and it is difficult to determine whether early maternal deprivation caused this behavior, or if other factors, such as genetics or environmental influences, were at play. Additionally, Bowlby’s study was retrospective—it relied on participants’ accounts of their early lives, which could have been biased or inaccurate. This raises concerns about the reliability of his conclusions. Furthermore, the study was not longitudinal, which means it could not assess the long-term effects of maternal deprivation.

Evaluations paper 1 Flashcards

(103 cards)