paper 1 predicted essays Flashcards
(19 cards)
The role of social influence in social change
Social change - the way norms change over time. –Minority influence
-snowball effect
-nominative social influence
- role of obedience
+normative social influence - energy usage reduced when told there neighbors were saving energ. Definition of social change
When societal beliefs, norms or behaviours shift significantly over time.
- Role of minority influence (Moscovici)
Small group influences majority through:
Consistency (unchanging message)
Commitment (sacrifice/effort shows seriousness)
Flexibility (being cooperative, not dogmatic)
Leads to internalisation and eventually majority acceptance.
- Snowball effect
Over time, minority influence builds momentum, gaining more supporters.
Eventually becomes the new norm.
- Role of conformity (normative social influence)
Campaigns use NSI by showing people what others are doing:
E.g. “Bin it – others do” or “Most people use less than 100L of water/day”.
People change to fit in with majority norms.
- Role of obedience
Disobedient models can encourage others to resist authority (as in Milgram variations).
Gradual commitment: once a small instruction is obeyed, it becomes easier to obey larger changes.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Research support for NSI in social change
Nolan et al. (2008): energy usage reduced more in households told their neighbours were saving energy.
Supports the idea that conformity to norms can drive change.
– Minority influence is slow and indirect
Social change through minorities often takes decades (e.g., civil rights, climate change).
Nemeth (1986) argues it’s fragile and limited—only impacts certain issues.
+ Real-world application
Social influence research has helped shape health campaigns, environmental efforts, etc.
Demonstrates high practical value of the theories.
– Methodological issues
Many studies (e.g., Moscovici, Asch) use artificial tasks in lab settings.
May lack ecological validity—real-life social change is more complex.
+ Explains historical changes
Helps explain movements like civil rights, women’s suffrage, and LGBT+ rights.
Shows theories are applicable to real-world societal shifts.
Conclusion (optional)
Social influence processes—especially minority influence, NSI, and obedience—play vital roles in social change.
However, real-world change is often slow, multifaceted, and influenced by other factors (economics, politics, media).
Minority influences
- Definition of minority influence
A minority group influences the majority to change their beliefs or behaviour.
Leads to internalisation – private and public change.
- Key factors affecting minority influence (Moscovici, 1969)
Consistency: Minority must be stable in their views (synchronic and diachronic consistency).
Commitment: Showing dedication, e.g. through personal sacrifice, draws attention (augmentation principle).
Flexibility: Must be open to compromise – rigid minorities are seen as unreasonable (Nemeth, 1986).
- Moscovici’s study
Group of 6 (4 real participants, 2 confederates).
Shown 36 blue slides – confederates said they were green.
Consistent minority: Ppts gave wrong answer on 8.42% of trials.
When inconsistent, conformity dropped to 1.25%.
Shows consistency increases minority influence.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Research support for consistency
Moscovici et al. showed consistent minorities were more effective.
Supports the idea that consistency is key to influence.
+ Research support for flexibility
Nemeth (1986): flexible minorities were more persuasive than rigid ones.
Supports that balance of consistency and flexibility is important.
– Artificial tasks
Identifying slide colour is not realistic—lacks mundane realism.
Reduces external validity and generalisability to real-world influence.
– Limited real-world application
Minority influence in real life is often more complex (e.g., political movements).
Research often lacks the social power dynamics and deeper consequences of real-life situations.
+ Explains social change
Minority influence explains how movements like civil rights or suffrage gained support.
Shows it has important practical applications in society.
Conclusion (optional)
While lab studies show key processes (consistency, commitment, flexibility), real-world minority influence is more complex.
The theory is useful but must be applied cautiously outside experimental settings.
Zimbardo
- Aim:
To investigate how people conform to social roles, especially in prisons.
- Procedure:
Stanford Prison Experiment (1971).
24 emotionally stable male volunteers, randomly assigned to guard or prisoner roles.
Prisoners were arrested at home, blindfolded, and given uniforms and numbers.
Guards wore uniforms, mirrored sunglasses, and carried batons.
Zimbardo acted as prison superintendent.
Study was meant to run for 2 weeks but stopped after 6 days due to extreme behaviour.
- Findings:
Guards became increasingly brutal and abusive.
Prisoners became anxious, depressed, and submissive.
One prisoner released after 1 day; others showed emotional distress.
The study showed strong conformity to social roles even in a simulated environment.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Real-world relevance
Helps explain real-life abuse in prisons (e.g., Abu Ghraib).
Shows how situational factors and roles can lead to cruelty.
– Ethical issues
Participants suffered psychological harm and weren’t fully protected.
Zimbardo had a dual role (researcher and superintendent), reducing objectivity.
Raises questions about informed consent and right to withdraw.
– Lack of realism (demand characteristics)
Banuazizi & Mohavedi (1975): argued participants were acting rather than genuinely conforming.
One guard even said he was copying a movie character.
Reduces validity of the findings.
+ Some realism (quantitative data supports)
90% of prisoner conversations were about prison life—suggests it felt real to participants.
Adds internal validity.
– Lack of population validity
All participants were male, American students.
Cannot generalise to females or people from other cultures—androcentric and ethnocentric.
resistance to social influence=
AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Social support
Presence of others who resist pressure enables resistance.
Conformity: Asch found conformity dropped with a dissenter.
Obedience: Milgram found obedience dropped to 10% when the participant had a disobedient peer.
Shows that seeing others resist gives confidence to do the same.
- Locus of control (Rotter, 1966)
Internal LOC: Believe they control what happens to them.
External LOC: Believe things happen due to luck or external forces.
Internals are more resistant to pressure to conform or obey.
They’re more likely to take responsibility for actions and base decisions on own beliefs.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Supporting evidence for social support
Asch: dissenter reduced conformity.
Milgram: obedience dropped with a disobedient confederate.
Real-world application: peer support can help resist pressure.
+ Supporting evidence for locus of control
Holland (1967): repeated Milgram’s study—internals were more likely to resist.
Suggests LOC is a valid explanation for resistance.
– Contradictory research on LOC
Twenge et al. (2004): people have become more external over time but also more resistant to obedience.
Challenges the link between internal LOC and resistance—may not be so simple.
– Explanations are too simplistic
Resistance likely involves multiple factors (e.g., personality, social context, past experiences).
Overreliance on LOC or social support might ignore other influences.
+ Real-world applications
Understanding resistance helps design programs to reduce conformity or obedience, such as in schools or campaigns.
Increases practical value of research.
Conclusion (optional)
Both social support and locus of control explain resistance, supported by studies.
However, resistance is complex and multifaceted, not always explained by these two factors alone.
cognitive treatments to depression
- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Aims to identify and challenge negative/irrational thoughts.
Based on Beck’s cognitive therapy or Ellis’s REBT.
Involves collaboration between therapist and client.
Client is encouraged to record thoughts/events and test beliefs.
- Beck’s CBT
Focuses on identifying negative triad thoughts.
Uses thought catching and behavioural activation (e.g., doing enjoyable activities).
Replaces irrational beliefs with more balanced thinking.
- Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)
Expands ABC to ABCDE:
D = Dispute irrational beliefs
E = Effect (new beliefs/emotional outcomes)
Uses techniques like logical and empirical disputing to challenge thoughts.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Effective treatment
Research (e.g. March et al. 2007): CBT as effective as antidepressants, and best when combined.
Supports validity and usefulness of cognitive treatments.
– Not suitable for all patients
Requires motivation and engagement.
Those with severe depression may struggle—medication may be needed first.
Limits generalisability.
– Overemphasis on cognition
May underestimate social/environmental factors (e.g., poverty, abuse).
Suggests depression is just “faulty thinking”, which might blame the patient.
+ Practical advantages
Shorter and cost-effective compared to some other therapies.
Often structured, with clear goals—appealing to many clients.
+ Empowers the patient
Teaches self-help skills; helps prevent relapse.
Long-term benefits beyond therapy.
Conclusion (optional)
CBT is a widely used, effective treatment with lasting benefits.
However, not a one-size-fits-all solution—needs to be tailored, and combined with other treatments in some cases.
cognitive explaantion for depression
AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Beck’s Negative Triad
Depression caused by faulty information processing.
Negative schemas develop in childhood (e.g., from criticism).
These lead to cognitive biases, such as overgeneralisation.
Negative views about self, world, and future (the negative triad).
- Ellis’s ABC Model
Depression results from irrational beliefs.
A = Activating event (e.g., failing an exam).
B = Belief (rational or irrational, e.g., “I’m useless”).
C = Consequence (emotional/behavioural response, e.g., depression).
Irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Real-world application
Led to successful therapy (CBT).
CBT challenges negative beliefs, supporting cognitive ideas.
Increases validity of the approach.
– Doesn’t explain all aspects of depression
Some patients experience anger, hallucinations, or bizarre beliefs.
Cognitive models are incomplete explanations.
– Causation issue
Do negative thoughts cause depression, or result from it?
Could be a symptom, not a cause—limits explanatory power.
+ Supporting evidence
Grazioli & Terry: pregnant women with more negative thoughts were more likely to develop postnatal depression.
Supports Beck’s idea that negative thinking precedes depression.
– Reductionist
Ignores biological factors (e.g., low serotonin).
A more holistic explanation might combine cognitive and biological approaches.
Conclusion (optional)
Cognitive approach is useful and supported by therapy success.
However, a complete understanding of depression likely needs to consider biological and environmental factors too.
Ainsworth strange situation
AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Aim:
To observe how infants behave under conditions of mild stress and novelty, to assess attachment type.
- Procedure:
Conducted in a controlled observation setting (lab).
Involved infants (12–18 months) and their caregiver.
Consisted of 8 episodes (each ~3 minutes) involving:
Stranger anxiety
Separation anxiety
Reunion behaviour
Use of mother as secure base
- Findings (3 attachment types):
Secure (Type B, ~60-75%): explores, shows distress when mum leaves, happy on return.
Insecure-avoidant (Type A, ~20-25%): avoids mum, little distress on separation, avoids on return.
Insecure-resistant (Type C, ~3%): clingy, high distress, rejects comfort at reunion.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Good reliability
High inter-observer reliability (over 94%) due to controlled environment and clear behavioural categories.
Suggests Strange Situation is a reliable tool for measuring attachment.
– Culturally biased
Based on Western norms of parenting (individualistic).
Takahashi (1990): Japanese infants showed extreme separation anxiety (due to cultural practices, not attachment issues).
Limits cross-cultural validity.
– Lacks ecological validity
Strange Situation takes place in a lab setting—unnatural environment may affect infant behaviour.
Reduces external validity of findings.
+ Predictive validity
Securely attached infants tend to have better outcomes (friendships, emotional stability).
Insecure-resistant linked with later difficulties.
Supports the method’s validity.
– Only measures one attachment
Focuses on attachment to mother/main caregiver only.
Main and Weston (1981): children behave differently with different caregivers—attachment may be relationship-specific, not child-specific.
Conclusion (optional)
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is a useful and influential tool in understanding attachment, but its cultural bias and artificial setting limit its universal application.
early attachment
AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Internal Working Model (Bowlby)
Early attachment forms a template for future relationships.
A secure attachment leads to trusting, healthy relationships.
An insecure attachment can lead to issues in forming or maintaining relationships.
- Relationships in childhood
Securely attached infants go on to have better peer relationships.
Kerns (1994): securely attached = more popular, empathetic; insecure = more problems.
- Relationships in adulthood
Hazan & Shaver’s (1987) ‘Love Quiz’:
Found correlation between childhood attachment and adult romantic relationships.
Secure: longer, trusting relationships.
Insecure-avoidant: fear of closeness.
Insecure-resistant: clingy, jealous.
AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Supporting evidence
Studies like Hazan & Shaver and Kerns support link between early attachment and later relationship quality.
Strengthens the validity of Bowlby’s internal working model.
– Correlation ≠ causation
These studies show correlation, but don’t prove early attachment causes later relationship outcomes.
Other factors (e.g. temperament, life experiences) may influence relationships.
– Retrospective data
Hazan & Shaver relied on adults recalling childhood attachments.
Memory may be inaccurate or biased, reducing validity of conclusions.
– Deterministic view
Implies early attachment fixes your future relationships.
But people with insecure attachments can still form healthy adult relationships (shows plasticity).
+ Practical applications
Highlights the importance of secure early relationships (e.g. in parenting and social care).
Helps inform policies on adoption, fostering, and early intervention.
Conclusion (optional)
Early attachment likely plays a role in later relationships, but the influence is not fixed or sole.
Other life experiences and choices can moderate or overcome early patterns.
instituationalistaion
Definition:
Institutionalisation refers to the effects of growing up in an institution (e.g., orphanages) where there is often little emotional care.
Key study: Rutter et al. (2011) – Romanian Orphans
Longitudinal study of 165 Romanian orphans adopted into UK families.
Compared to 52 British adoptees (control group).
Assessed physical, cognitive, and emotional development at ages 4, 6, 11, and 15.
Findings:
Adopted before 6 months: normal emotional development by age 4.
Adopted after 6 months: showed disinhibited attachment (over-friendly to strangers, attention-seeking) and lower IQ.
Long-term effects more likely when adoption occurred later.
Another study: Zeanah et al. (2005)
Bucharest Early Intervention Project: 136 children in institutions vs. those in foster care.
74% of institutional group had disorganised attachment; only 19% in foster care group.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
+ Real-world application
Findings led to changes in institutional care (e.g., key worker system).
Shows practical value for improving children’s lives.
+ Use of longitudinal studies
Rutter’s study followed orphans over time, tracking long-term effects.
Allows for a more valid understanding of development.
– Individual differences
Not all children were equally affected—some recovered fully despite poor conditions.
Suggests innate temperament or early experiences also play a role.
– Romanian orphans were unusually deprived
Extreme neglect, malnourishment, no toys—not typical of all institutional care.
Limits generalisability to other settings.
+ Controlled conditions
Especially true of Zeanah’s study, which had well-matched control groups.
Increases internal validity.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Research into institutionalisation has revealed serious long-term effects when children experience emotional neglect, but also shows that early intervention and quality care can reverse some of the damage.
forgetting
. Interference Theory
Forgetting occurs when two memories compete, especially if similar.
Two types:
Proactive interference – old info interferes with new.
Retroactive interference – new info interferes with old.
✅ Example: Learning French and then Spanish may lead to confusion between the two.
- Retrieval Failure (Cue-Dependent Forgetting)
Forgetting occurs due to lack of cues present at recall.
Based on encoding specificity principle (Tulving):
If cues present at learning are not present at recall, retrieval is harder.
Types of cues:
Context-dependent (e.g., environment)
State-dependent (e.g., mood or physical state)
✅ Example: Godden & Baddeley (1975) – divers learned words underwater vs. on land.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Real-world support for interference
Baddeley & Hitch (1977): rugby players who played more games forgot earlier matches more than those who played fewer.
Shows real-life retroactive interference.
✅ + Strong evidence for retrieval failure
Godden & Baddeley, Carter & Cassaday (state-dependent) support cue dependency.
Suggests retrieval failure is a valid explanation of forgetting.
❌ – Limited application of interference
Lab studies often use artificial materials (e.g., lists of words).
May lack ecological validity.
❌ – Cue-dependent forgetting may be overstated
In real life, people remember info even without perfect cues.
Context effects often not very strong, especially in real-world tasks.
✅ + Practical application
Retrieval failure research has helped improve revision strategies (e.g., using context cues or mental reinstatement).
Useful in education and eyewitness memory.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Both interference and retrieval failure are supported by strong evidence, but retrieval failure likely plays a larger role in everyday forgetting, while interference may be more relevant when similar information is learned.
the biological explantion for ocd
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Genetic explanation (OCD is inherited)
OCD is polygenic – caused by multiple genes.
Candidate genes: e.g., SERT gene (affects serotonin), COMT gene (regulates dopamine).
Family studies show OCD runs in families; Nestadt et al. found 68% concordance in MZ twins vs. 31% in DZ twins.
- Neural explanation (abnormal brain functioning)
Low serotonin: linked to poor communication between brain regions.
OFC (orbitofrontal cortex): involved in decision-making and worry; overactive in OCD.
Caudate nucleus fails to suppress signals, causing compulsive behaviour.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Supporting evidence for genetic links
Nestadt et al. (2010): higher concordance in identical twins supports a biological basis.
Adds to validity of genetic explanation.
❌ – Too many candidate genes
OCD is polygenic and aetiologically heterogeneous (different genes for different people).
This makes it hard to predict or treat based on genes alone.
✅ + Support for neural explanations
Antidepressants (SSRIs) that increase serotonin often reduce OCD symptoms.
Suggests serotonin is involved in the disorder.
❌ – Correlation, not causation
Low serotonin/OFC issues may be an effect, not a cause of OCD.
Can’t establish a clear cause-effect relationship.
❌ – Ignores psychological factors
Cognitive and behavioural models offer useful insights (e.g., obsessional thinking, reinforcement of compulsions).
Biological explanation may be reductionist.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
The biological explanation is well-supported, especially by drug therapy and brain scans, but may be incomplete alone. A more holistic view, including psychological factors, is likely more effective.
biological treatments
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)
Most common drug treatment for OCD.
Increases levels of serotonin in the synapse by preventing its reabsorption.
Takes 3–4 months to show effect.
Example: fluoxetine (Prozac).
- Alternatives to SSRIs
If SSRIs are ineffective:
SNRIs (e.g., venlafaxine): increase serotonin and noradrenaline.
Tricyclics (e.g., clomipramine): similar to SSRIs but more side effects.
Antipsychotics: occasionally used if SSRIs fail.
- Combination treatment
SSRIs often combined with CBT to treat both biological and cognitive aspects of OCD.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Effective
Soomro et al. (2009): SSRIs more effective than placebo in 17 studies, especially when combined with CBT.
Supports use of SSRIs as a valid treatment.
✅ + Cost-effective and non-disruptive
Cheaper than psychological therapies.
Easy to take; doesn’t require motivation like CBT.
Useful for those who can’t engage in therapy.
❌ – Side effects
SSRIs: nausea, insomnia, headaches.
Tricyclics: more severe side effects like heart problems.
May cause people to stop taking medication.
❌ – Not a long-term cure
Drugs manage symptoms but don’t address the root cause (e.g., faulty thinking).
Symptoms may return when meds are stopped.
❌ – Publication bias
Studies showing positive outcomes more likely to be published.
Goldacre (2013) argued drug companies may selectively report findings.
Affects validity of evidence for drug effectiveness.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
SSRIs are a useful and evidence-based treatment for OCD, especially when combined with CBT.
However, they may not work for everyone and are best used as part of a broader treatment plan.
definitions for abnormaliy
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
You need to outline four definitions. Keep each one brief and clear:
- Statistical infrequency
Behaviour is abnormal if it is statistically rare (outside the average range).
Example: IQ below 70 is considered abnormal (used in diagnosing intellectual disability).
- Deviation from social norms
Abnormality defined by behaviour that violates unwritten social rules.
Example: antisocial personality disorder—ignores expected social standards.
- Failure to function adequately
Behaviour is abnormal if it prevents a person from coping with everyday life.
Rosenhan & Seligman’s signs: distress, unpredictability, irrationality, etc.
- Deviation from ideal mental health
Abnormality is the absence of positive mental health (Jahoda’s criteria).
Criteria include: self-actualisation, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, etc.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Statistical infrequency is objective
Based on real data (e.g. IQ scores), making it scientific and measurable.
Useful in clinical diagnosis.
❌ – But it ignores desirability
High IQ is statistically rare but not abnormal.
Also, not all disorders (e.g. depression) are rare.
Lacks validity.
✅ + Deviation from social norms has real-life use
Used in diagnosing disorders like antisocial personality disorder.
Reflects societal standards.
❌ – But culturally biased
What’s “normal” in one culture may be abnormal in another.
Ethnocentric and can lead to abuse of human rights (e.g. labelling non-conformists).
✅ + Failure to function considers personal distress
More person-centred, capturing individual experience.
Better than purely statistical methods.
❌ – But subjective
Judging “adequate functioning” may vary between observers.
Risk of labelling nonconformity as illness.
✅ + Ideal mental health is positive and holistic
Focuses on what’s healthy, not just what’s wrong.
Encourages personal growth.
❌ – But unrealistic standards**
Few people meet all of Jahoda’s criteria.
May result in most people being classed as abnormal.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Each definition has strengths and weaknesses.
A multi-criteria approach may offer the most accurate and fair way to define abnormality.
behavioural approach to phobias
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
The behavioural explanation focuses on learning through experience using the two-process model (Mowrer, 1960):
- Classical Conditioning (Acquisition of phobias)
Phobias are learned by associating a neutral stimulus with a fear response.
Example: Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920) – learned to fear white rats after pairing with a loud noise.
- Operant Conditioning (Maintenance of phobias)
Phobias are maintained through negative reinforcement.
Avoiding the phobic stimulus reduces anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour.
- Social Learning (Optional add-on)
Phobias may also be learned vicariously by observing others’ fearful reactions.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Real-world application
Led to effective treatments like systematic desensitisation and flooding.
Suggests the explanation has practical value.
✅ + Supporting evidence from case studies
Watson & Rayner: Little Albert learned a fear through classical conditioning.
Real example supports the theory.
❌ – Not all phobias follow trauma
Many people with phobias can’t recall a traumatic experience.
Suggests other factors (e.g., biological preparedness) may play a role.
❌ – Ignores cognitive factors
Focuses only on behaviour, ignoring irrational thoughts or beliefs.
Cognitive explanations may offer a more complete account.
❌ – Environmentally reductionist
Reduces phobias to learning, ignoring genetics, evolution, and biology.
E.g., Seligman’s preparedness theory: more likely to fear snakes/spiders due to evolution.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
The behavioural explanation is supported by evidence and is useful for treatment, but may be too simplistic. A more holistic view including cognitive and biological factors may be better.
Behavioral treatments for phobias
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Systematic Desensitisation (SD)
Aims to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning.
Based on counterconditioning: learning a new response (relaxation) to the phobic stimulus.
Involves:
Anxiety hierarchy: rank situations from least to most frightening.
Relaxation training: e.g., breathing, muscle relaxation.
Gradual exposure while remaining relaxed (reciprocal inhibition).
- Flooding
Involves immediate and intense exposure to the phobic object/situation.
Prevents avoidance and allows for extinction of fear response.
Longer sessions but fewer needed.
Ethical safeguards: informed consent is essential due to high anxiety.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Effective (especially SD)
Gilroy et al. (2003): SD group treated for spider phobia showed less fear than control group even after 33 months.
Shows long-term effectiveness.
✅ + Suitable for a wide range of patients (SD)
SD is suitable for people with learning difficulties who may struggle with cognitive therapies.
Also more acceptable and less traumatic than flooding.
❌ – Flooding is highly traumatic
Even though it’s not dangerous, many patients refuse to finish treatment.
This reduces treatment effectiveness and suitability.
✅ + Cost-effective (flooding)
Quicker than SD and CBT, so cheaper for health services.
Makes it a practical option.
❌ – Symptom substitution (especially flooding)**
Behavioural therapies don’t address the underlying cause.
Another symptom may appear (e.g., treating dog phobia may lead to social anxiety).
Suggests a cognitive or psychodynamic approach may be more complete.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Behavioural therapies are generally effective and practical, especially SD.
However, flooding may not be suitable for all, and cognitive factors should also be considered.
Bowlby maternal deprivation
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Definition of Maternal Deprivation
Bowlby (1951) argued that continual presence of the mother (or primary caregiver) is essential for normal psychological development (especially during the critical period – up to 2.5 years).
- Consequences of Deprivation
Deprivation (i.e., separation without substitute emotional care) can lead to:
Intellectual delay (e.g., low IQ)
Emotional problems (e.g., affectionless psychopathy – inability to feel guilt/remorse)
- 44 Thieves Study
Bowlby interviewed 44 juvenile thieves and their families.
Findings: 14 were affectionless psychopaths, and 12 of these had prolonged separation from their mothers.
Suggested a link between maternal deprivation and criminality/lack of remorse.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Supporting evidence
Bowlby’s 44 Thieves study supports the idea of long-term consequences of early separation.
Also supported by Goldfarb (1947): orphans deprived of maternal care had lower IQs than fostered children.
❌ – Methodological issues (bias & poor control)**
Bowlby conducted the interviews himself – investigator bias.
Also, the 44 Thieves study is correlational, not causal. Other factors (e.g. poverty) could explain the findings.
❌ – Confusion between deprivation and privation**
Rutter (1981) criticised Bowlby for not distinguishing between:
Deprivation (loss of attachment after it formed)
Privation (attachment never formed)
Rutter found privation may have worse effects.
❌ – Counter-evidence from later studies**
Lewis (1954) replicated 44 Thieves with a larger sample (500+) and found no link between separation and criminality.
Weakens Bowlby’s conclusions.
✅ + Real-world application
Bowlby’s work led to major changes in hospital care and fostering policies, ensuring children had continuous emotional care (e.g., parental visits in hospitals).
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Bowlby’s theory had huge influence, especially in highlighting emotional care’s importance.
However, later research suggests the impact of deprivation is more complex and not always permanent.
working memory model
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Overview of the Working Memory Model (WMM)
The WMM (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) proposes that short-term memory (STM) is not a unitary store but a system of interacting components that work together to temporarily hold and manipulate information.
- Components of the WMM
Central Executive:
Directs attention and coordinates the activities of the slave systems.
Limited capacity and modality-independent (works with all senses).
Phonological Loop:
Stores and processes auditory information.
Divided into two parts:
Phonological Store (holds sounds).
Articulatory Rehearsal Process (allows rehearsal of information to prevent decay).
Visuospatial Sketchpad:
Stores and processes visual and spatial information.
Used for tasks like navigation or mental imagery.
Divided into:
Visual Cache (stores visual information).
Inner Scribe (processes spatial information and movement).
Episodic Buffer (added later by Baddeley, 2000):
Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory.
Temporarily stores multi-modal information (e.g., visual and auditory).
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Supporting evidence
Baddeley & Hitch (1974): Found that people can perform two different tasks (e.g., a verbal and a visual task) simultaneously without interference, suggesting separate systems for visual and verbal information.
Supports the idea of multiple stores in the WMM.
Trojan & Richard (2009): Demonstrated that the phonological loop is crucial for language learning, further supporting its importance in the WMM.
✅ + Real-life application
The WMM has been applied in understanding conditions like dyslexia and ADHD.
Helps explain why individuals with these conditions may struggle with tasks that involve the phonological loop.
❌ – Limited explanation of the Central Executive
The Central Executive is poorly defined and lacks specificity.
It is described as “modality-independent” but this is vague and lacks empirical clarity.
Eslinger & Damasio (1985): Patients with brain damage affecting the central executive could perform simple tasks but struggled with more complex ones, raising questions about its true capacity and role.
❌ – Lack of clarity in the Episodic Buffer
The Episodic Buffer was only introduced later, and its exact role in integrating multi-modal information is still unclear.
It may overlap with other cognitive functions such as long-term memory retrieval, making its distinctiveness questionable.
✅ + Clinical evidence (brain injury patients)
Evidence from patients with brain injuries supports the model.
For example, patients with damage to the phonological loop show deficits in verbal tasks but can still perform spatial tasks, suggesting the WMM is a valid model of different stores.
❌ – Oversimplification of long-term memory involvement
The WMM focuses heavily on short-term memory and doesn’t adequately explain how long-term memory interacts with it, especially in tasks like complex reasoning.
The model doesn’t fully capture the complexity of real-world memory processes.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
The WMM offers a detailed and supported model of STM, highlighting different cognitive components for processing verbal, visual, and spatial information.
However, the vagueness around the central executive and episodic buffer weakens its overall explanatory power. A more integrated model, perhaps incorporating more biological or cognitive factors, could provide a more comprehensive understanding.
eyewitness
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Misleading Information
Leading Questions: Questions that suggest a particular answer can distort eyewitness recall.
Loftus & Palmer (1974): Participants asked about the speed of cars in a crash, using different verbs (“smashed” vs. “contacted”). The “smashed” group gave higher speed estimates.
Post-Event Information: Information introduced after the event can affect memory recall.
Gabbert et al. (2003): Participants in a co-witness situation reported incorrect details they had not seen, influenced by other witnesses’ testimonies.
- Anxiety and Stress
High levels of anxiety can impair or enhance eyewitness recall.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Moderate levels of anxiety can improve memory, but too much anxiety can impair it.
Johnson & Scott (1976): Participants in a high-anxiety condition (weapon focus) had poorer recall compared to those who saw a man holding a pen.
- Age of the Witness
Children and older adults may be less accurate in their eyewitness testimony due to cognitive limitations.
Wright & McDade (1996): Young children tend to be more suggestible and less accurate, while older adults may struggle with recalling specific details.
- Own-Race Bias
Eyewitnesses tend to be more accurate in identifying individuals from their own race than those from other races.
Meissner & Brigham (2001): The cross-race effect shows reduced accuracy when identifying individuals of a different race.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Practical Applications in Legal Settings
The research on misleading information and anxiety has led to changes in police interview techniques, such as cognitive interviews (Fisher et al., 1987).
Cognitive interviews aim to reduce the effects of misleading information by encouraging witnesses to recall events from different perspectives.
✅ + Real-World Evidence Supporting Misleading Information
Loftus & Palmer’s work is supported by many studies, reinforcing the idea that leading questions can distort eyewitness memory.
E.g., Yuille & Cutshall (1986): In a real-life robbery case, witnesses’ memories were not as easily affected by leading questions, suggesting that lab studies may not fully reflect real-world scenarios.
❌ – Contradictory Evidence for Anxiety**
Christianson & Hubinette (1993): Found that witnesses to real-life stressful events (e.g., bank robberies) had better recall than those in lower-anxiety situations.
Suggests that anxiety does not always impair recall, and may even enhance memory under certain conditions.
✅ + Methodological Strengths
Many studies on eyewitness testimony use controlled experiments, which allow researchers to manipulate variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships (e.g., Loftus & Palmer’s study on misleading information).
Provides high internal validity.
❌ – Limited Ecological Validity**
Laboratory studies on eyewitness testimony may lack realism and do not always represent the complexity of real-world events.
For example, participants may not be emotionally involved in the event or may be aware that they are part of an experiment.
✅ + Influence of Age on Eyewitness Testimony
Research on age-related differences (e.g., Wright & McDade) has practical implications for the reliability of eyewitness testimony in different age groups.
This has led to better training for law enforcement officers when questioning witnesses of different age groups.
❌ – Individual Differences in Memory Accuracy**
Not all eyewitnesses are affected by the same factors in the same way. For example, people may have different levels of vulnerability to anxiety or misleading questions.
This means that general conclusions about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony may not apply to every individual.
✅ Conclusion (optional)
Eyewitness testimony is a complex process that can be influenced by a range of factors, including misleading information, anxiety, age, and cross-race effects.
While research provides valuable insights into these influences, real-life accuracy can vary significantly. Improvements in interview techniques and understanding individual differences can enhance the reliability of eyewitness accounts.
the multistore model
✅ AO1: Outline (6 marks)
1. Overview of the Multi-Store Model (MSM)
The MSM of Memory was developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and suggests that memory is made up of three distinct stores:
Sensory Register (SR)
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Components of the Model
Sensory Register:
Capacity: Large, stores all sensory information.
Duration: Very brief (milliseconds to a few seconds).
Encoding: Specific to each sense (e.g., visual, auditory).
Short-Term Memory (STM):
Capacity: Limited (7±2 items, Miller, 1956).
Duration: 18-30 seconds without rehearsal.
Encoding: Primarily acoustic (sound-based).
Information can be transferred to LTM via rehearsal.
Long-Term Memory (LTM):
Capacity: Unlimited.
Duration: Potentially lifelong.
Encoding: Primarily semantic (meaning-based).
- Process of Memory Transfer
Attention: Information enters the sensory register and is transferred to STM if it is attended to.
Rehearsal: Information in STM is maintained by rehearsal. Repetition of the information moves it to LTM.
Retrieval: Information is retrieved from LTM back into STM when needed.
✅ AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)
✅ + Supportive Evidence from Research
Miller (1956): Found that STM can hold 7±2 items, supporting the limited capacity of STM in the MSM.
Glanzer & Cunitz (1966): Showed that participants remember words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list, supporting the idea of distinct stores for STM and LTM.
✅ + Evidence from Brain Research
Case studies (e.g., HM) provide support for the separation of STM and LTM. HM could not form new LTM but had normal STM, indicating that these two stores are separate.
Neuroimaging: Different brain areas (e.g., hippocampus for LTM) are activated during tasks involving LTM, further supporting the distinction between STM and LTM.
❌ – Oversimplification of Memory Processes**
The MSM is too simplistic and fails to account for the complexity of memory processes.
Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) offers a more dynamic and complex view of STM, suggesting that STM is not just a single store.
The MSM does not explain different types of LTM (e.g., episodic, semantic, procedural).
❌ – Lack of Consideration for Individual Differences**
The MSM assumes that all individuals encode, store, and retrieve information in the same way.
In reality, memory processes may vary due to individual differences (e.g., age, cognitive abilities, and experience).
✅ + Practical Applications
The model’s structure has led to practical applications, such as in education and memory rehabilitation.
Understanding that rehearsal helps to retain information in LTM has been used in techniques like mnemonics and study strategies.
❌ – Rehearsal Is Not Always Sufficient**
The MSM suggests that rehearsal is the key to transferring information from STM to LTM, but not all information requires rehearsal to be remembered.
Craik & Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels of processing theory, which suggests that deeper, semantic processing leads to better memory retention than simple rehearsal.
