1
Q
What 6 elements makeup 99% of mass of the body?
A
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus,
2
Q
What is an ion?
A
when an atom/element gives away or steals an electron
changing its charge
3
Q
What is a covelant bond?
A
a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
majority of living things have covalent bonds
between: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and/or phosphorus.
4
Q
What is the backbone of most organic compounds?
A
carbon
5
Q
What is polarity?
A
how molecules react with other when covalent bonds between two atoms are shared unequally, causing a partial + and a partial - side of the molecule
6
Q
What is an ionic bond?
A
bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and loss or gain of an electron
7
Q
What is a cation?
A
positively charged ion – such as Na+
8
Q
What is an anion?
A
negatively charged ion – auch as Cl-
9
Q
What are electrolytes?
A
electrical currents created by ions within our bodies
10
Q
What are enzymes?
A
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts for reactions
They lower the energy needed for a reaction
They accelerate reactions
Enzymes are very specific proteins for a specific substrate
Participates in both break-down and synthesis
11
Q
What is an acid?
A
a chemical that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
0-7 on the pH scale
12
Q
What is a base?
A
a chemical that decreases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
– Also referred to as alkali
– Strongest bases release hydroxyl groups (OH-)
7-14 on pH scale
13
Q
What is the normal pH of the body? What is a high pH? What is a low pH?
A
pH 7.35-7.45 is normal
pH less than 7.35 is acidosis (more H+)
pH greater than 7.45 is alkalosis (less H+)
14
Q
What is the nature of acidosis?
A
Serum pH would be < 7.35
Many diseases and illnesses can result in acidosis
Acidosis causes reduced function of enzymes, metabolism and the function of organs in the body
Much more common and serious than alkalosis
15
Q
What is the nature of alkadosis?
A
Serum pH would be > 7.45
Less common than acidosis since the body makes acids
16
Q
What are the 4 macromolecules?
A
Carbohydrates (strands of sugars)
Lipids (triglycerides)
Proteins (strands of amino acids)
Nucleotides (DNA/RNA)
17
Q
What is the nature of amino acid strands?
A
Can be small strands (insulin 20-30) or long strands (albumin 585)
strand, helix or folded sheets that twist/fold
can be eaten for energy (meat, beans, dairy) and made in the body
made by the ribosomes within the cells with mRNA
18
Q
What are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of amino acids?
A
Primary: single strand
Secondary: folded polypeptide chains into helices or sheets
Tertiary: secondary sheets folded and twisted due to side interactions
Quaternary: more than one amino acid chain E.g. hemoglobin
19
Q
10 functions/types of proteins.
A
Energy source
Enzymes
Hormones: act as messengers in the body(insulin)
Structural proteins: collagen and elastin
Protective proteins: antibodies in the immune system
Storage proteins: the protein ferritin stores iron
Contractile proteins: actin and myosin
Transport proteins: albumin in blood
Clotting proteins: help clot blood such as fibrinogen
Membrane and channel proteins
20
Q
What are 7 functions of fats?
A
energy storage in adipose cells as triglycerides
source of fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)
insulation
protection – cushioning around organs
cell membrane(phospholipids)
covers nerves as myelin sheath
synthesis of steroid hormones in body (estrogen, testosterone)
21
Q
What are prostaglandins and leukotrienes?
A
fatty acids in the inflammatory system
22
Q
What are DNA and RNA pairs?
A
DNA pairs- Guanine-Cytosine, Thymine-Adenine
RNA pairs- Guanine- Cytosine, Uracil- Adenine
23
Q
What are 2 functions of nucleotides?
A
building blocks for DNA and RNA
function as energy carriers such as ATP, GTP in body
24
Q
What is RNA, tRNA, rRNA, mRNA?
A
single-stranded copy of the instructions from DNA
Transfer RNA- links mRNA and Amino-Acid
Ribosomal RNA-part of ribosome
Messenger RNA-made from DNA, copied to make
proteins by ribosomes
25
What is the nature of the plasma membrane?
A bilayer of phospholipids with phosphate heads and lipid tails
Cell membrane is semipermeable, allows diffusion of
oxygen and carbon-dioxide freely
Many molecules require protein channels or carriers to
cross the membrane
26
What are the functions of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell membrane?
* cell adhesion with Adherens junctions and Tight junctions
* participates in cell-to-cell recognition, allows cells to identify as ‘self’ or "not self"
27
What are the functions of transmenbrane proteints, cholesterol and peripheral proteins?
Transmembrane: transport channels and carriers of ions, molecules and substances across the membrane
Cholesterol stabilizes all cell membranes in the body
Peripheral: receptor for ligands to communicate a signal into/out of the cell
28
What type of protein serves as ion or transport channels and need ATP, at times, for active transport?
transmembrane protein
29
How does water move across the cell membrane?
osmosis
30
What is facilitated diffusion? Active transport?
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process of molecules through the cell membrane using protein channels.
Active transport requires energy to move molecules through protein channels from a low to high concentration
31
What are 3 modes of facilitated diffusion?
Ligand- Gated: molecule
Voltage-Gated: electrical
Mechanically-Gated: movement of receptor
32
What are 6 types of cell communication?
Gap Junctions: tunnels between cells allowing
things to pass without needing proteins.
Autocrine: ligand signals the same cell
Paracrine: ligands released from one cell that impacts only nearby cells.
Endocrine: cell targets a distant cell through the blood
Hormonal: ligands released into the bloodstream designated for specific cells in distant locations.
Neurotransmitters: ligands released from
neurons which cross a synapse to bind to another nerve or muscle cell.
33
What is the function of the mitochondria?
Harvests energy from carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins and stores them as ATP
34
What are the 3 steps of ATP production?
1)Glycolysis – in the cytoplasm – anaerobic, no 02
needed
2)Citric acid/Krebs cycle – in the mitochondrial matrix
3)Electron Transport chain – in the mitochondrial
membrane
35
Explain glycolosys.
1)Occurs in the cytoplasm of cells
2)Is always an anaerobic process to begin glucose metabolism
3)End product is pyruvic acid which becomes
lactic acid if oxygen is not present.
4)If oxygen is present, pyruvic acid proceeds to
enter the Krebs cycle
5) process yields 2 ATP from glucose to pyruvate
36
Explain aerobic ATP production.
Requires oxygen to maximize ATP production
Involves Glycolysis, Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)and
electron transport chain to produce a net 34 ATP
plus 2 in glycolysis = 36 ATP
Most efficient energy producing system
37
Explain Kreb's cycle (citric acid).
Inside the mitochondrial matrix, the Krebs cycle yields 34 ATP
Involves a series of reactions that begin with Acetyl
-CoA from Pyruvate breakdown.
Electron transport chain needs 02 and produces
ATP.
38
What is the function of lysosomes?
Lysosomes: destroy unwanted materials – such as old cell parts, foreign matter, and lipases.
When cell is ready to die, lysosome conducts apoptosis
Lysosomal diseases lead to a build up of debris in cells and rare gentic diseases(Tay-sachs disease)
39
What is the function of perioxsomes?
breakdown fatty-acids (chemical reaction)and free radicals (byproducts of cellular metabolism)
40
What is produced in the rough ER? Smooth ER?
proteins
lipids--phospholipids and steriods
41
What is the function of the golgi apparatus?
Processes, packages and ships proteins to other
areas inside the cell or into the bloodstream.
Produces vacuoles that deliver substances to cell
membrane
42
What occurs in the nucleus? What is the nature of DNA?
Directs cellular activity:
* cell replication and division, double stranded DNA
*Made of nucleotides which can be purine or
pyridamine bases (A-T, G-C)
*DNA are the ‘genes’ – the double helix ladder made
of nitrogenous bases.
* mRNA directs the protein synthesis in the cell,
single stranded, uses Uracil instead of Thymine
43
What is transcription and translation?
TRANSCRIPTION- a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).
TRANSLATION- messenger RNA encodes for a series of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds forming proteins
44
What are the 4 main types of body tissues?
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue (smooth, skeletal and cardiac)
Nervous tissue
45
What is the nature of epithelial tissue?
Covers outer surface of organs
Lines internal surfaces- intestines, stomach, lungs
Forms glandular tissues- pancreas
Basement membrane attaches epithelial cells to
adjacent connective tissues.
Typically avascular tissue
Cells are tightly packed and rapidly divide
Classified by shape and cell layers
46
What is cilia?
Hair like projections found in the respiratory tract – moves mucous out of lungs so it can be coughed up.
47
What are goblet cells?
mucous producing cells found in the Lungs and GI tract to produce mucous.
* The mucous clears debris/pollution in lungs.
* In GI tract, the mucous forms a protective
layer to intestinal wall.
48
What are 2 glands? What type of epithelial are they typically associated with?
Exocrine – fluid is secreted onto a
surface(sweat, oil....), and GI tract
Endocrine- fluid is secreted directly into
bloodstream (insulin)
cuboidal
49
What are the functions of adipose tissue?
Energy storage in the body
* Fills space between tissues/organs
* Keeps organs in place
* Acts as a cushion to prevent injury
* Gives the body shape and form
* Insulates the body
50
What is are the functions of dense connective tissue?
Strong connective tissue found in:
* Skin
*Organ capsules
*Tendons, ligaments – Classed as regular or irregular
depending on organization of the fibers.
*Typically made of collagen from fibroblasts in skin,
ligaments and tendons.
51
What are the functions of bone?
storing minerals such as Calcium and Phosphate
* providing internal support to body
* protecting vital organs such as heart,
lungs, liver and brain
* enabling movement of body
* providing attachment sites for muscles and tendons.
52
What are 2 types of bone?
Compact bone: forms the outer layer of all bones in the body with the structure from osteons
Spongy bone: forms the inner layer of all bones with a
trabecular network
53
What methods do neural signals tell the skeletal muscle to contract?
Motor Endplate – actual place where nerve (axon)
and muscle meet.
Synapse- gap between nerve and muscle that
contains the neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter- for skeletal muscle is
Acetylcholine
54
What is the neurotransmitter of muscle movement?
Acetocholine
55
What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
stores and releases calcium to promote muscle contraction
56
What 2 protein filaments interact to create muscle movement? What must be present for this to occur?
Actin and Myosin
calcium
57
What is the nature of cardiac muscle?
Involuntary muscle controlled by internal pacemakers
Striated muscle like skeletal muscles
Single Nucleus in cardiac muscle unlike skeletal muscle
Intercalated discs: small connections that join cardiac
muscle cells (myocytes) to each other.
Gap junctions: part of the intercalated disc, transfers
the stimulation to the next cardiac cell. Allows the
muscle to contract in a coordinated way.
Desmosomes: found within intercalated discs. hold the
cardiac muscle fibers together during a contraction.
58
What is the nature of smooth muscle?
Walls of hollow organs like your intestines, stomach, blood vessels, and respiratory tract
* Involuntary movements and peristalsis
* No striations, only one nucleus in muscle cell
Actin and myosin are still present. Allows for distention.
* Stimulus comes from intrinsic feedback loop or
autonomic nervous system.
59
What are the 3 main parts of the nerve cell?
Dendrite – collects information sends it to:
Cell Body – processes info and creates action
potential which then travels down the:
Axon - which connects with another cell
60
What are afferent, integration and efferent neurons?
Afferent: sensory – they carry information toward the CNS for processing
Integration: integrate the information
received from afferent neurons and direct the
function of the body through efferent neurons.
Efferent: motor – carry
impulses from CNS to the periphery to control bodily responses
61
What 3 factors result in infection?
virulence of the pathogen
availability of a portal of entry
immunocompetence of the host
62
What are 4 pathogens?
bacteria, virus, fungi, parasite
63
What is colonization of microorganisms? Examples?
presence of micro-organisms with no infection present
*Over 300 different species of bacteria live in the
large intestine
*Bacteria and Fungi live on our skin naturally
*The mouth and pharynx contain many species of
bacteria
*The vagina contains acid-producing bacteria
normally
64
What are main ports of entry?
Mucous membranes of Gastrointestinal, Respiratory,
Genitourinary and Placenta
Skin such as a wound or bite
Parenteral- punctures, IV injections, blood transfusions
65
How does an infection establish?
PORTAL OF ENTRANCE- how does the organism
enter the body
*ADHERENCE- Is the organism able to attach to the
body, pathogens use proteins called Adhesins
(ligands)
*COLONIZATION- can the organism form a colony
*AVOID HOST DEFENSES- can the organism avoid
the hosts immune system
*CREATES HOST INJURY- does the organism harm
the host
66
What are 6 routes of transmission for a pathogen?
AEROSOL and AIRBORNE-
*DIRECT CONTACT fluids or tissue
*FOMITE CONTACT- inanimate objects/surfaces
*ORAL TRANSMISSION-
*VECTOR TRANSMISSION- An organism that carries and transmits
*ZOONOTIC TRANSMISSION - Animals
67
What 5 factors can influence the virulence of a pathogen?
Toxins of pathogen: bacteria can release toxins
*Ability to attach to the host
*Protective mechanisms/Evading the host: pathogens
develop ability to kill phagocytes and/or survive
*Ability to alter host defenses: more common in
viral infections.
*Invasive Factors: pathogens release enzymes that
allow them to invade barriers and access the body.
68
What are endotoxins and exotoxins?
Endotoxins- on the cell membrane of the microorganism, which causes an intense immune reaction by the host including fevers and chills. Can also be released when the bacteria dies.
*Exotoxins- actively secreted by the microorganism to enter and help attack the host cells. More deadly than endotoxins. E.g. Cholera toxin from a bacteria is an exotoxin that causes a massive fluid leakage out of intestinal cells into the lumen resulting in intense diarrhea.
69
What is the nature of bacteria? Examples.
single-celled organisms
produce toxins harmful to the body
identified by shape and staining
1)Streptococcus. A. leading to Strep Pharyngitis
2)E.coli leading to a bladder infection
70
What is the nature of viruses? Examples.
Cannot reproduce without a host
*Consist of DNA or RNA viruses
*Take over the functions of the host cell to survive
1)Coronavirus or Rhinovirus
2) Herpes virus leading to genital sores
71
What is the nature of fungus? Examples.
Mycology= Study of fungus
* Live in air, soil, plants and water
*Produce transmittable spores which can cause fungal diseases in the body
1)Tinea is a superficial fungal skin infection
2)Aspergillus pneumonia is a deep fungal infection
72
What is the nature of protozoa? Examples.
They are parasitic diseases
*Effect host animals through contact or ingestion
*Have various life cycles
1) Malaria from a mosquito bite leading to infection
2) Head lice or body lice (pediculosis)
3) Giardia lamblia leading to Giardiasis
73
What is the reservoir?
The habitat in which the organism normally lives, grows,
and multiplies, such as soil for tetanus or humans for
covid-19
74
What is epidemiology, incidence and prevelence?
EPIDEMIOLOGY:
*The study of the incidence and spread of infectious diseases in populations over a period.
*INCIDENCE: The rate of occurrence of a disease over a period of time, rate of new cases
*PREVALENCE: percentage of the population that has a disease at a point in time
75
What constitutes a nosocomial or hospital aquired infection?
An infection that is neither incubating or present prior to
hospital admission
A newly acquired infection that is contracted within a
hospital environment.
common infections are urinary tract infections, respiratory pneumonia, surgical wound infections, and skin infections
76
How are bacteria classified?
Shape of bacteria- cocci, bacilli, and spiral
*Type of staining- Gram Negative or Positive bacteria
*Size of bacteria under microscope
*Most common groupings after staining and microscopy: Gram +ve cocci, Gram +ve bacilli, Gram-ve cocci and Gram-ve bacilli
77
What are features of Graham positive staining?
cell walls are thick, and the peptidoglycan layer
constitutes almost 95% of cell wall
*takes up the crystal violet dye and are stained purple.
78
What are features of Graham negative staining?
Cell walls are much thinner, so stain washes out, stains as pink color.
79
What are the 6 steps of viral infection?
Attachment – virus attaches to a host cell
*Penetration- into host cell
*Uncoating – virus release DNA into cell cytoplasm
*Replication – enters host DNA and divides
*Assembly- new viral particles are made
*Release- new viral particles are released
80
What viruses are the most common cause of Human infections and do NOT result in hospitalization or death
Colds
*Hepatitis A, B, C
*Chicken pox, Herpes Zoster
*Influenza
*Herpes type 1 or 2
*Warts
81
What are helminths?
Helminthes – worm parasites
*Common in underdeveloped countries
*Live within the intestines of humans
*Pin worms and Roundworms
*E.g. Tapeworms, Roundworms, Pins worms
82
What is the nature of adaptive immunity?
Creates a long-term memory in the immune system after an initial response to a specific pathogen
*Highly specific to a single pathogen
*B-cell antibody response and T-cell mediated immune response
*Memory T and B cells are generated
83
What is the nature of innate immunity?
(already existing in the body)
*Nonspecific to any antigen trying to enter the body
*Physical barriers such as skin and soft tissue
*Chemical barriers such as the stomach acid
*Cytokines (chemical mediators) to attract immune cells to the area to stimulate adaptive immunity
*Certain WBC's such natural killer cells, eosinophils, basophils, and the phagocytic cells which include macrophages, neutrophils
84
What are bactericidal and bacteriostatic anti-bacterials?
Bactericidal – directly kills the pathogen
*Bacteriostatic – inhibits bacterial growth
85
How do anti-fungal medicines work?
prevent ergosterol synthesis. This allows holes to form in cell membrane, which destroys the fungus.
86
What are antibody titers?
A blood test that detects the presence
and also measures the amount of antibodies to a certain organism. High titers to organism suggest immunity to it
87
What is congenital?
A condition or disease that is present at birth,
88
What is inoculum?
biological substance that is administered to a
patient to increase immunity to a disease. Similar to
immunization or vaccination
89
What is bacteremia?
presence of bacteria in the bloodstream.
Can occur with minor activities such as a dental procedure or a serious bacterial infection such as pneumonia
90
What is septicemia (sepsis)?
An infection that results in severe inflammation, unstable vital signs (BP,HR) and potentially multi-
organ failure. Life threatening condition
91
What is MRSA?
methicillin resistant staph. aureus, Can be hospital
acquired or community acquired. Hospital acquired has a high resistance to many antibiotics. Spread by direct hand contact, wounds or carrier state. Often screened if admitted to hospital
92
What is VRE?
vancomycin resistant enterococcus, another bacteria
with high antibiotic resistance. Direct contact or fomite spread, not coughing. Also screened in hospitals
Patho
flashcards
Decks in class (5)
# Cards
