family (demography)

Question 1

Harper (Functionalist)

Declining Birth Rate

Answer 1

AO1: Harper argues that women’s increased educational attainment is the most important reason for the long-term decline in birth rate in the UK. Educated women are more likely to delay childbirth, focus on careers, and have smaller families, reducing fertility rates.

AO2: We see this trend in the average age of first-time mothers rising and a total fertility rate of 1.58 in England and Wales (as of 2020s). Harper links this to societal changes, especially in female empowerment and access to contraception.

AO3:Harper’s theory overgeneralises and ignores cultural, class, and ethnic diversity.

Ethnic minorities, such as Bangladeshi or Pakistani communities, often still have higher birth rates, influenced by traditional values.

Question 2

Vertovec (Postmodernist)

Migration Trends

Answer 2

AO1: Vertovec argues that recent global migration has led to super-diversity, where migrants differ not only by nationality or ethnicity, but also by legal status, cultural values, religion, and economic background.
This makes UK society more fragmented and complex than in previous eras of migration..

AO2:for example, a London borough may include migrants from the same country, but with different legal statuses (asylum seekers vs. skilled workers), religions (Muslim vs. Christian), and migration motives (family reunification vs. education).

AO3:Marxists might say it diverts attention from class-based issues like exploitation or housing inequality, which affect all migrants, regardless of background.

Question 3

Cohen (Marxist)

Globalisation of Migration

Answer 3

AO1: ohen (2006) argues that the globalisation of migration has created diverse types of migrants:

Citizens (with full rights)

Denizens (privileged foreign nationals)

Helots (exploited, unskilled workers)
This stratification reflects the hierarchical and unequal nature of global migration patterns.

AO2: For example, wealthy investors may be granted UK citizenship quickly (denizens), while undocumented care workers or domestic helpers from the global south (helots) face poor conditions, low pay, and limited rights.
This highlights how global capitalism shapes migration to benefit powerful nations and classes.

AO3:eminists argue Cohen understates gender; for example, many helots are female migrant care workers, reflecting patriarchal expectations in both sending and receiving countries.

Question 4

Ehrenreich and Hochschild (Feminist)

Feminisation of Migration

Answer 4

AO1: Increasingly, migrant women take domestic jobs in the West.

AO2: Applies to many UK households where migrant women (e.g. from the Philippines or Eastern Europe) are employed as nannies or cleaners.

AO3: Many women choose to migrate to earn better wages, gain independence, or fund their children’s education.

Migration may give women more power in their families and communities back home.